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AMBER

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Originally appearing in Volume V01, Page 794 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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AMBER , a fossil See also:

resin much used for the manufacture of ornamental See also:objects. The name comes from the Arab. See also:anbar, probably through the See also:Spanish, but this word referred originally to See also:ambergris, which is an See also:animal substance quite distinct from yellow amber. True amber has sometimes been called karabe, a word of See also:oriental derivation signifying " that which attracts See also:straw," in allusion to the See also:power which amber possesses of acquiring an electric See also:charge by See also:friction. This See also:property, first recorded by Thales of See also:Miletus, suggested the word " See also:electricity," from the See also:Greek, AEKrpov, a name applied, however, not only to amber but also to an alloy of See also:gold and See also:silver. By Latin writers amber is variously called See also:electrum, sucinum (succinum), and glaesum or glesum. The See also:Hebrew hashmal seems to have been amber. Amber is not homogeneous in See also:composition, but consists of several resinous bodies more or less soluble in See also:alcohol, See also:ether and See also:chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance. The See also:average composition of amber leads to the See also:general See also:formula C1oH160. Heated rather below 30o° C. amber suffers decomposition, yielding an " oil of amber," and leaving a See also:black See also:residue which is known as " amber colophony," or " amber See also:pitch "; this forms, when dissolved in oil of See also:turpentine or in See also:linseed oil, "amber See also:varnish " or " amber See also:lac." True amber yields on dry See also:distillation succinic See also:acid, the See also:pro-portion varying from about 3 to 8%, and being greatest in the See also:pale opaque or " bony " varieties. The aromatic and irritating fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly due to this acid. True Baltic amber is distinguished by its yield of succinic acid, for many of the other fossil resins which are often termed amber contain either none of it, or only a very small proportion; hence the name " succinite" proposed by See also:Professor J. D.

See also:

Dana, and now commonly used in scientific writings as a specific See also:term for the real Prussian amber. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, which is rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its specific gravity varies from 1.05 to 1.10. The Baltic amber or succinite is found as irregular nodules in a marine glauconitic See also:sand, known as " See also:blue See also:earth," occurring in the See also:Lower Oligocene strata of See also:Samland in See also:East See also:Prussia, where it is now systematically See also:mined. It appears, however, to have been partly derived from yet earlier. See also:Tertiary deposits (See also:Eocene); and it occurs also as a derivative See also:mineral in later formations, such as the See also:drift. See also:Relics of an abundant See also:flora occur in association with the amber, suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern See also:Asia and the See also:southern See also:part of See also:North See also:America. H. R. Goppert named the See also:common amber-yielding See also:pine of the Baltic forests Pinites succinifer, but as the See also:wood, according to some authorities, does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has been also called Pinus succinifera. It is improbable, however, that the See also:production of amber was limited to a single See also:species; and indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera are represented in the amber-flora. The resin contains, in addition to the beautifully preserved plant-structures, numerous remains of See also:insects, See also:spiders, annelids, crustaceans and other small organisms which became enveloped while the exudation was fluid.

In most cases the organic structure has disappeared, leaving only a cavity, with perhaps a trace of chitin. Even See also:

hair and feathers have occasionally been represented among the enclosures. Fragments of wood not infrequently occur, with the tissues well-preserved by impregnation with the resin; while leaves, See also:flowers and fruits are occasionally found in marvellous perfection. Sometimes the amber retains the See also:form of drops and See also:stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of the injured trees. The abnormal development of resin has been called " succinosis." Impurities are often See also:present, especially when the resin dropped on to the ground, so that the material may be useless except for varnish-making, whence the impure amber is called firniss. Enclosures of See also:pyrites may give a bluish See also:colour to amber. The so-called " black amber " is only a See also:kind of See also:jet. " Bony amber " owes its cloudy opacity to See also:minute bubbles in the interior of the resin. Although amber is found along the shores of a large part of the Baltic and the North See also:Sea, the See also:great amber-producing See also:country is the promontory of Samland. Pieces of amber torn from the sea-See also:floor are See also:cast up by the waves, and collected at ebb-See also:tide. Sometimes the searchers See also:wade into the sea, furnished with nets at the end of See also:long poles, by means of which they See also:drag in the sea-See also:weed containing entangled masses of amber; or they dredge from boats in shallow See also:water and See also:rake up amber from between the boulders. See also:Divers have been employed to collect amber from the deeper See also:waters.

Systematic dredging on a large See also:

scale was at one See also:time carried on in the Kurisches Haff by Messrs Stantien and See also:Becker, the great amber merchants of See also:Konigsberg. At the present time extensive See also:mining operations are conducted in quest of amber. The " See also:pit amber " was formerly dug in open See also:works, but is now also worked by underground galleries. The nodules from the " blue earth " have to be freed from See also:matrix and divested of their opaque crust, which can be done in revolving barrels containing sand and water. The sea-worn amber has lost its crust, but has often acquired a dull rough See also:surface by See also:rolling in sand. Amber is extensively used for beads and other trivial ornaments, and for See also:cigar-holders and the mouth-pieces of pipes. It is regarded by the See also:Turks as specially valuable, inasmuch as it is said to be incapable of transmitting infection as the See also:pipe passes from mouth to mouth. The variety most valued in the East is the pale straw-coloured, slightly cloudy amber. Some of the best qualities are sent to See also:Vienna for the manufacture of smoking appliances. In working amber, it is turned on the See also:lathe and polished with whitening and water or with rotten See also:stone and oil, the final lustre being given by friction with See also:flannel. During the working much electricity is See also:developed. By gradually See also:heating amber in an oil-See also:bath it becomes soft and flexible.

Two pieces of amber may be See also:

united by smearing the surfaces with linseed oil, heating them, and then pressing them together while hot. Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous pores to which the turbidity is due. Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now utilized on a large scale in the formation of " ambroid " or " pressed amber." The pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of See also:air and then compressed into a See also:uniform See also:mass by intense See also:hydraulic pressure; the softened amber being forced through holes in a See also:metal See also:plate. The product is extensively used for the production of cheap jewellery and articles for smoking. This pressed amber yields brilliant interference See also:colours in polarized See also:light. Amber,has often been imitated by other resinslike See also:copal and kauri, as well as by celluloid and even See also:glass. True amber is sometimes coloured artificially. Amber was much valued as an ornamental material in very See also:early times.. It has been found in Mycenaean tombs; it is known from See also:lake-dwellings in See also:Switzerland, and it occurs with See also:neolithic remains in See also:Denmark, whilst in See also:England it is found with interments of the See also:bronze See also:age. A remarkably See also:fine See also:cup turned in amber from a bronze-age See also:barrow at See also:Hove is now in the See also:Brighton Museum. Beads of:amber occur with Anglo-Saxon relics in the See also:south of England; and up to a comparatively See also:recent See also:period the material was valued as an See also:amulet. It is still believed to possess certain medicinal virtue.

Rolled pieces of amber, usually small but occasionally of very large See also:

size, may be picked up on the east See also:coast of England, having probably been washed up from deposits under the North Sea. See also:Cromer is the best-known locality, but it occurs also on other parts of the See also:Norfolk coast, as well as at See also:Yarmouth, Southwold, See also:Aldeburgh and See also:Felixstowe in See also:Suffolk, and as far south as See also:Walton-on-the-Naze in See also:Essex, whilst northwards it is not unknown in See also:Yorkshire. On the other See also:side of the North Sea, amber is found at various localities on the coast of See also:Holland and Denmark. On the shores of the Baltic it occurs not only on the Prussian and Pomeranian coast but in the south of See also:Sweden, in See also:Bornholm and other islands, and in S. See also:Finland. Amber has indeed a very wide See also:distribution, extending over a large part of See also:northern See also:Europe and occurring as far east as the Urals. Some of the amber districts of the Baltic and North Sea were known in prehistoric times, and led to early See also:trade with the south of Europe. Amber was carried to See also:Olbia on the Black Sea, Massilia on the Mediterranean, and Hatria at the See also:head of the Adriatic; and from these centres it was distributed over the Hellenic See also:world. Whilst succinite is the common variety of See also:European amber, the following varieties also occur: Gedanite, or " brittle amber," closely resembling succinite, but much more brittle, not quite so hard, with a lower melting-point and containing no succinic acid. It is often covered with a See also:white See also:powder easily removed by wiping. The name comes from Gedanum, the Latin name of See also:Danzig. Stantienite, a brittle, deep brownish-black resin, destitute of succinic acid.

Beckerite, a rare amber in earthy-See also:

brown nodules, almost opaque, said to be related in properties to See also:gutta-percha. Glessite, a nearly opaque brown resin, with numerous microscopic cavities and dusty enclosures, named from glesum, an old See also:game for amber. Krantzite, a soft amber-like resin, found in the lignites of See also:Saxony. Allingite, a fossil resin allied to succinite, from Switzerland. Roumanite, or Rumanian amber, a dark reddish resin, occurring with See also:lignite in Tertiary deposits. The nodules are penetrated by cracks, but the material can be worked on the lathe. See also:Sulphur is present to the extent of more than i o/o, whence the See also:smell of sulphuretted See also:hydrogen when the resin is heated. According to G. Murgoci the Rumanian amber is true succinite. Simetite, or Sicilian amber, takes its name from the See also:river Simeto or Giaretta. It occurs in See also:Miocene deposits and is also found washed up by the sea near See also:Catania. This beautiful material presents a great diversity of tints, but a See also:rich See also:hyacinth red is common.

It is remarkable for its See also:

fluorescence, which in the See also:opinion of some authorities adds to its beauty. Amber is also found in many localities in See also:Emilia, especially near the sulphur-mines of See also:Cesena. It has been conjectured that the See also:ancient See also:Etruscan ornaments in amber were wrought in the See also:Italian material, but it seems that amber from the Baltic reached the Etruscans at Hatria. It has even been supposed that amber passed from See also:Sicily to northern Europe in early times—a sup-position said to receive some support from the fact that much of the amber dug up in Denmark is red; but it must not be forgotten that reddish amber is found also on the Baltic, though not being fashionable it is used rather for varnish-making than for ornaments. Moreover, yellow amber after long See also:burial is See also:apt to acquire a reddisn colour. The amber of Sicily seems not to have been recognized in ancient times, for it is not mentioned by See also:local authorities like Diodorus Siculus. Burmite is the name under which the Burmese amber is now described. Until the See also:British occupation of See also:Burma but little was known as to its occurrence, though it had been worked for centuries and was highly valued by the natives and by the See also:Chinese. It is found in See also:flat rolled pieces, irregularly distributed through a blue See also:clay probably of Miocene age. It occurs in the Hukawng valley, in the Nangotaimaw hills, where it is irregularly worked in shallow pits. The mines were visited some years ago by Dr Fritz Noetling, and the mineral has been described by Dr See also:Otto Helm. The Burmese amber is yellow or reddish, some being of See also:ruby tint, and like the Sicilian amber it is fluorescent.

Burmite and simetite agree also in being destitute of succinic acid. Most of the Burmese amber is worked at See also:

Mandalay into See also:rosary-beads and See also:ear-cylinders. Many other fossil resins more or less allied to amber have been described. Schraufitc is a reddish resin from the Carpathian See also:sandstone, and it occurs with jet in the cretaceous rocks of the See also:Lebanon; ambrite is a resin found in many of the coals of New See also:Zealand; See also:retinite occurs in the lignite of Bovey Tracey in See also:Devonshire and elsewhere; whilst copaline has been found in the See also:London clay of See also:Highgate in North London. Chemawinite or cedarite is an amber-like resin from the See also:Saskatchewan river in See also:Canada. Amber and certain similar substances are found to a limited extent at several localities in the United States, as in the See also:green-sand of New See also:Jersey, but they have little or no economic value. A fluorescent amber is said, however, to occur in some abundance in Southern See also:Mexico. Amber is recorded also from the Dominican See also:Republic.

End of Article: AMBER

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