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SPITSBERGEN (the name being Dutch is ...

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Originally appearing in Volume V25, Page 711 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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SPITSBERGEN (the name being Dutch is incorrectly, though commonly, spelled Spitzbergen) , an See also:Arctic See also:archipelago, almost midway between See also:Greenland and Novaya Zemlya, in 76° 26' to 80° 50' N. and 10° 20' to 32° 40' E., comprising the five large islands of See also:West Spitsbergen or New See also:Friesland, See also:North-See also:East See also:Land, Edge See also:Island, See also:Barents Island and See also:Prince See also:Charles Fore-land, the Wiche Islands, and many small islands divided by straits from the See also:main See also:group. The See also:chief island, West Spitsbergen, shaped like a See also:wedge pointed towards the See also:south and deeply indented on the west and north by See also:long branching fjords, has an See also:area of about 15,200 sq. m. At the north-west See also:angle of the island is a region cif bold peaks and large glaciers, in the midst of which is the See also:fine Magdalena See also:Bay. Farther south come the See also:series of glaciers called by the whalers " The Seven Icebergs," which drain a high snowfield reaching east almost to See also:Wood Bay and south to the See also:head of See also:Cross Bay. On the south-east it is drained by glaciers towards or into See also:Dickson and Ekman bays. South of this snowfield comes the mountainous See also:King See also:James Land, consisting of an intricate network of craggy ridges with glaciers between. A deep north-and-south depression is occupied by Wijde and Dickson bays, the one opening on the north See also:coast, the other a head-See also:branch of the See also:great See also:Ice See also:Fjord of the west coast, bordered on the west by a range of fine mountains, a See also:spur of which separates the two bays. East of this depression there is a See also:plateau region. Its edge is eaten away into deep valleys, down which the ice-See also:sheet of New See also:Fries-land sends See also:glacier See also:tongues into Wijde Bay. East of Dickson Bay the marginal valleys are larger, and no glaciers come far down them. The plateau between Dickson and Klaas Billen bays is cut up by deep valleys such as the Rendal, Skansdal and Mimesdal (all well known to geologists); it contains no large glaciers. Farther east is found a glaciated area called Garwood Land by See also:Sir See also:Martin See also:Conway.

The See also:

neck of West Spitsbergen is bounded on the north by a See also:line from near the head of Klaas Billen Bay to Wiche Bay, and on the south by the Sassendal and the depression leading to Agardh Bay. It is a complicated area of fine craggy ridges with beautiful glaciers between. See also:Adventure Land lies south of the neck, and is bounded on the south by a line from the head of See also:Van Keulen Bay to Whales Bay. It is an area of boggy valleys, rounded hills, and small glaciers, and may be described as the temperate and fertile See also:belt, and is the only See also:part of the island where See also:reindeer still linger in any number. Near the west coast it contains some fine peaks and large glaciers. It is penetrated by the longest See also:green valleys in Spitsbergen, e.g. from Coles Bay, See also:Advent Bay and See also:Low See also:Sound (the valley of the Shallow See also:river). The See also:southern See also:division of the island is very icy. There is a high snowfield alcng its east See also:side, and ranges of peaks farther west. Two parallel ranges See also:form the backbone of the-island south of See also:Horn Sound, the higher of them containing the famous Horn Sund Tind (4560 ft.). The long narrow island, Prince Charles See also:Foreland, with lofty peaks, runs parallel to part of the west coast of West Spitsbergen, from which it is separated by a narrow strait. Its range of mountains is interrupted towards the southern end of the island by a See also:flat See also:plain of 5o sq. m. raised only a few feet above See also:sea-level. There is a narrower depression a few See also:miles farther north.

The broad Stor (Great) Fjord, of Wybe Jans See also:

Water, separates the main island from two others to the east—Edge Island (2500 sq. m.) and Barents Land (58o sq. m.). Formerly these were considered as one, until the narrow See also:Freeman Strait which parts them was discovered. Neither Barents Land nor Edge Island carries ice-sheets, and both are practically devoid of glaciers down their western coasts, but have large glaciers reaching the sea on the east. To the north-east of West Spitsbergen, separated from it by Hinlopen Strait (7 to 6o m. in breadth) lies North-East Land, with an area of about 6,20o sq. m. Its western and See also:northern coasts are indented by several bays and fjords. It is covered with a true ice-sheet, while the neighbouring Wiche Islands to the south-east See also:bear no large glaciers at all. East by north from Cape See also:Leigh See also:Smith, the easternmost promontory of North-East Land, rises See also:White Island, covered with See also:snow and ice, and rising to about 700 ft. It was discovered by Cornelis See also:Giles or Gillis in 1707, and is alternatively named Giles Land. Numerous small islands See also:lie around the larger: Danes and other islands off the north-west coast of West Spitsbergen, the Seven Islands, Outger Reps, Broch, and Charles XII. Island on the north of North-East Land; Hinlopen Strait contains numerous islets, and the Ryk Yse Archipelago, See also:Hope or See also:Walrus Island, and the Thousand Islands (about a See also:hundred small rocks) lie to the east and south of Edge Island. The nomenclature is in a See also:state of hopeless confusion, the names given by the old explorers having been carelessly transferred from point to point, or capriciously set aside. The true names, See also:English and Dutch, of the See also:principal misnamed sites are here indicated in brackets after the current names: South Cape (Point Look-out), Torrel's Glacier (Slaadberg), Recherche Bay (See also:Joseph's Bay, Schoonhoven), Van Keulen Bay (See also:Lord See also:Ellesmere Sound, Sardammer Rivier), Van See also:Mayen Bay (Low Sound, Klok Rivier), See also:Coal Bay (Coles Bay), Advent Bay (Adventure Bay), St See also:John's Bay (See also:Osborn's Inlet), English Bay (See also:Cove Comfortlesse), Foreland Sound (Sir See also:Thomas Smith Bay, Keerwyk), Cross Bay (See also:Close Cove), the bay called Smeerenburg (See also:Fair Haven, Dutch Bay), Flat See also:Hook (See also:Fox Point), Biscayers' Hook (Point Welcome), Redbeach (Broad Bay), Leifde Bay (Wiche Sound), See also:Grey Hook (Castlin's Point), Wijde Bay (Sir Thomas Smith Inlet), Verlegen Hook (Point See also:Desire), Treurenberg Bay (Bear Bay), Agardh Bay (Foul Sound), Stor Fjord (Wybe Jans Water), North-East Land (Sir Thomas Smith Island), North Cape (Point See also:Purchas).

See also:

Stans Foreland is not, as often appears, an alternative name of Edge Island, but the lame of its south-eastern cape only. See also:Geology.—The backbone of the main island consists of an See also:ancient See also:mass of pre-Devonian granites, gneisses and See also:schists forming a See also:mountain See also:chain in the western region. Resting upon these ancient crystalline rocks, the precise See also:age of which has not been definitely determined, there is a See also:succession of sedimentary rocks representing nearly every one of the prominent periods of See also:geological See also:time. For the eastern part of the group these strata lie nearly See also:horizontal; here and there they are pierced by intrusive igneous rocks. The See also:oldest sediments yet found are the Ord..vician beds which occur at Hekla Hook, See also:dolomites, limestones, slates and quartzites; See also:Silurian rocks may possibly exist in the north-west; and Devonian grits with Pteraspis have been recorded in Liefde Bay. The Carboniferous See also:period is represented by See also:Culm-like rocks (classed by O. Heer as Ursien—Upper Devonian) ; upon these come limestones with Spirifer 11losquensis (Hinlopen Straits) and above these again are limestones with Cyathophyllum and Fusulina; (Eisfjord, See also:Bell Sound, Horn Sound, &c.). Permo-Carboniferous limestones and dolomites occur on the west on the mainland and on Prince Charles Foreland and in King James Land. See also:Black slaty shales with large See also:ammonites in the Calcareous nodules and beds of black, bituminous See also:limestone represent the Trias at Cape Thorodsen; and See also:Rhaetic fossils are found in See also:Research Bay, Bell Sound. See also:Jurassic rocks are widely spread and include See also:Bajocian, Bathonian, See also:Callovian, See also:Oxfordian and See also:Portlandian (Cape Starashchin and Advent Bay) ; the older stages being in the west. Some of these rocks are coal-bearing. See also:Wealden strata with coal seams and marine beds (Volgian) occur in the south, and in King Charles Land are Neocomian rocks with interbedded basalts.

Plant-bearing See also:

lower Cretaceous strata have been recorded, and lower See also:Eocene beds are found in Ice Fjord, Bell Sound containing large See also:magnolia leaves and others; beds of See also:London See also:Clay age occur in Kolbay. See also:Miocene Sandstones and clay with See also:lignite beds, some 2800 ft. thick, occupy the west coast about Ice Fjord, Bell Sound, Advent Bay, &c. In this period these islands were probably all See also:united and covered a much greater area and were covered with extensive See also:peat bogs, on the edges of which the See also:marsh See also:cypress flowered, dropping its leaves and blossoms into the marshes. See also:Sequoia, poplars, birches, planes and large oaks also See also:grew there, while See also:ivy and thick underwood freely See also:developed under their See also:shadow, and thousands of See also:insects swarmed in the thicket. Subsidence followed in See also:late See also:Tertiary times, to be succeeded by a period of rapid See also:elevation giving origin to the raised beaches such as those seen on Prince Charles Foreland, and possibly resubmergence may be again in progress. In comparatively See also:recent geological times this, the main island, was over most of its area a high plateau covered with an ice-sheet, which has gradually been withdrawn from the west towards the east, the western region being thus cut up into deep valleys and more or less rugged mountains. Farther east the mountains are' more rounded, but still farther east the plateau See also:character of the land remains. - See also:Climate.—The sea around Spitsbergen is shallow, and the ice readily accumulates See also:round the shores. Although the glaciers of Spitsbergen do not give origin to icebergs so huge as those of Green-land, the smaller bergs and the See also:pack-ice are thick enough to prevent See also:access to the shores except for a few months in the See also:year. However, the warm See also:drift from the See also:Atlantic sends a branch to the western shores of Spitsbergen, moderating its climate, and leaving an open passage which permits vessels to approach the western coast even under the most unfavourable conditions of ice in the arctic regions. Drift-wood from lower latitudes, See also:glass floats of the See also:Norwegian fishermen and other See also:objects have been found at the northern extremity of Spitsbergen. On the other See also:hand a See also:cold current charged with ice descends from higher latitudes along the eastern coasts, rendering approach extremely difficult.

On this See also:

account these shores long remained practically unknown. Owing to the warm drift the climate of Spitsbergen is less severe than in the corresponding latitudes of Greenland and Smith Sound. Bear Island, notwithstanding its more southerly position, has a lower temperature. The See also:isotherm of 23° F., which crosses the See also:middle of Eastern See also:Siberia, touches its southern extremity, and only the north-east coasts of Spitsbergen have an See also:average yearly temperature so low as 14° to 10.5°. At See also:Mussel Bay (79° 53') the average yearly temperature is 16° (See also:January 14.1°, See also:July 39.3°). Even in the coldest months of the See also:winter a thaw may set in for a few days; but, on the other hand, snow sometimes falls in July and See also:August. See also:Spring comes in See also:June; the snow becomes saturated with water and disappears in places, and See also:scurvy grass and the polar See also:willow open their buds. By the end of June the thermometer has ceased to sink below the freezing-point at See also:night; July, August and See also:September are the best months. In September, however, autumn sets in on See also:shore, and by the end of the See also:month the pack-ice rapidly freezes into one solid mass. In Trcurenberg Bay an See also:annual precipitation of 64 in. has been observed. See also:Fauna and See also:Flora.—The Greenland See also:whale has completely disappeared in consequence of the great havoc made by the See also:early whalers. According to See also:Scoresby, no less than 57,590 whales were killed between 1669 and 1775.

A great diminution, in the same way, is to be observed in the See also:

numbers of other creatures which were the See also:object of hunters. A reckless extermination of See also:seals was carried on. Walruses are now only occasionally seen in the See also:waters of West Spitsbergen. Birds, also, have rapidly diminished in numbers. The See also:fulmar See also:petrel meets See also:ships approaching Spitsbergen far away from the coasts. It makes colonies on the cliffs, as also do the See also:glaucous See also:gull and the " burgomaster." Rotches, black guillemots, See also:ivory gulls, auks and kittiwake gulls breed on the cliffs, while geese, looms and See also:snipe frequent the lagoons and small fresh-water ponds. The See also:eider See also:duck breeds on the islands, but its numbers have become noticeably reduced, while the lumme and the See also:tern confine themselves to See also:separate cliffs. These birds, however, are only guests in Spitsbergen, the snow-See also:bunting being the only See also:species which stays permanently; some twenty-three species breed regularly on Spitsbergen, and four others (the See also:falcon, snowy See also:owl, See also:swan and See also:skua) come occasionally. Of land mammals, besides the polar bear, the reindeer and arctic fox have been greatly reduced; the reindeer, in fact, are approaching extinction, whereas for several years consecutively before 1868 from 1500 to 2000 were killed by hunters in a few See also:weeks of summer. There are twenty-three species of fishes, but no See also:reptiles. Insects are few. Arachnids, and especially Pantopods, on the other hand, are very See also:common.

Molluscs are also numerous. At some places the mussels and univalves reach a large See also:

size and appear in great abundance. Of Crustaceans fully 100 species have been recognized in the waters of the archipelago. The flora is, of course, poor. The only See also:tree is the polar willow, which does not exceed 2 in. in height and bears a few leaves not larger than a See also:man's See also:finger-See also:nail; and the only bushes are the See also:crow-See also:berry and See also:cloudberry. But at the See also:foot of the warmer cliffs some See also:loam has been formed notwithstanding the slowness of putrefaction, and there, in contrast with the brownish See also:lichens that See also:cover the hills, grows a See also:carpet of mosses of the brightest green, variegated with the See also:golden-yellow See also:flowers of the See also:ranunculus, the large-leaved scurvy grass, several saxifrages, fox-tail grass, &c., with a few large flowers, Polygona and Andromedae; while on the driest spots yellow poppies, See also:whitlow See also:grasses, &c., are found. Even on the higher slopes, 1500 ft. above the sea, the See also:poppy is occasionally met with. In all over 13o species of flowering See also:plants have been found. Mosses, mostly See also:European acquaintances, cover all places where peat has accumulated. The slopes of the crags and the blocks of See also:stone on the See also:beach are sometimes entirely covered with a luxuriant See also:moss and See also:lichen vegetation, among the last being the so-called " See also:famine See also:bread " (Umbilicaria arctica), which has maintained the See also:life of many arctic travellers. Although limited in number, the flora is suggestive in its See also:distribution. The vegetation of the south has a decidedly Lappish or European alpine character, while that of the north coast is decidedly See also:American, and recalls that of See also:Melville Island.

Many flowering plants which are common in north-west Spitsbergen are absent from the east coast, where the cold climate is inimical to both flora and fauna; but, on the other hand, one moss (Pottia hyperborea) and one lichen (Usnea melaxantha) are found there which are of American origin and grow both in North See also:

America and on the Cordilleras. See also:Algae are most numerous, many, like the See also:brown Laminaria and Nostoc communis, which fill all pools and are the chief See also:food of many birds, being See also:familiar in See also:Europe. Protococcus nivalis covers the snow with its reddish See also:powder. See also:History.—Spitsbergen has never been permanently inhabited, although there are several instances of hunters wintering on the island under stress of circumstances, and several scientific expeditions have done so. A See also:Russian trapper named Starashchin is said in various accounts to have spent 32 or 39 winters, and 15 consecutive years, in the archipelago; he died there in 1826. Spitsbergen was discovered on the 17th of June 1596, during the expedition under See also:William Barents and See also:Jacob See also:Heemskerk, which ended with the See also:death of Barents. Barents saw parts of the west and north coasts, and to these he gave the name of Spitsbergen. In 1607 See also:Henry See also:Hudson, after visiting the coast of Greenland, reached Spitsbergen in June. Bear Island, the ice-See also:bound island midway between Spitsbergen and the North Cape, situated on the same submarine See also:platform as the former, had been discovered by Barents, and became important as a See also:hunting-ground (for walrus, &c.) before Spitsbergen. began to be visited for this purpose. In 1609 Thomas Marmaduke of the " Heartsease," proceeding north from Bear Island, reached Spitsbergen, and in the following year the first hunting expedition was despatchetl thither by the Muscovy See also:Company on See also:board the " Amitie " of London, See also:Jonas See also:Poole, See also:master, on whose See also:report of the abundance of whales on the coast the Spitsbergen whaling See also:industry, which was to grow to such importance, was established in 1611. Very shortly the Dutch began to take a See also:share in this, and there were frequent collisions between the whalers of the two nationalities, while in 1615 the Danes attempted to claim this part of " Greenland, as Spitsbergen was for a long time considered. See also:England attempted to annex the archipelago, but at length the Dutch became pre-dominant in the whaling industry, and in 1623 founded the summer See also:settlement of Smeerenburg.

This became a busy and important centre, but began to decline in about twenty years, as the whales were gradually driven from the bays and must be followed, at first northward along the coast, and later into the open sea. Independently of the English and Dutch, Russians from the White Sea See also:

district came to Spitsbergen to See also:hunt walruses, seals, bears, foxes, &c. At what early period they first did so cannot be known, but the industry seems to have gained a certain importance before 1740. The Russians had their own nomenclature for various parts of the archipelago, thewhole of which they also called Grumant, a corruption of Green-land. A similar hunting industry was established by Norwegians early in the 18th See also:century, but Spitsbergen declined in importance as a hunting-ground owing to the indiscriminate slaughter of See also:game. Many expeditions have made Spitsbergen their See also:base for polar exploration. The Russian See also:admiral Chichagov visited it twice, in 1765 and 1766, and reached 80° 28' N. The expedition sent from England in 1773 at the instigation of Daines See also:Barrington under the command of See also:Constantine John Phipps, was the first having a purely See also:geographical purpose. It consisted of two vessels, the " Racehorse " and the " See also:Carcass," on the first of which Horatio See also:Nelson was a See also:midshipman. Phipps mapped the north of Spitsbergen, and reached 8o° 48' north. In 1818 See also:David See also:Buchan and John See also:Franklin reached 8o° 34' to the north of the archipelago. See also:Captain D.

C. Clavering and Sir See also:

Edward See also:Sabine in 1823 explored the islands, and Sabine made his remarkable magnetic observations, while Clavering reached 8o° 20' N. Sir William See also:Parry, shortly after his return from his third voyage, went to Spitsbergen and reached 82° 40' north on sledges, while other members of the expedition were occupied with scientific See also:work in the archipelago. In the same year the Norwegian geologist Balthasar Mathias Keilhau visited the group and related his experiences in a remarkable See also:book, Rasa i Ost og West Finmarken (See also:Christiania, 1831). The See also:Swedish See also:professor Sven Loven was the first to undertake, in 1837, dredging and geological explorations in Spitsbergen and its vicinity. Next year a See also:body of See also:French, Swedish, Danish, and_ Norwegian naturalists, among whom was Charles Martins, visited the western coast. In 1858, at the See also:suggestion of Loven, See also:Otto See also:Torell, accompanied by A. E. See also:Nordenskiold and A. Quennerstadt made many important observations and brought See also:home See also:rich geological collections. In 1861 a larger expedition led by Torell, Nordenskiold, A. J.

Malmgren, and Karl Chydenius, set out with the object of finding how far it was possible to obtain a measurement of an arc of See also:

meridian of sufficient extent. This aim was only partly accomplished, but the expedition returned with an invaluable See also:store of various observations. The work of the measurement of the arc was completed in 1864 by another expedition conducted by Nordenskiold, assisted by Malmgren and N. Duper. This expedition was followed in 1868 by that of the " See also:Sofia," under Nordenskiold, which, in the words of See also:Oswald Heer, " achieved more and gave a wider See also:extension to the See also:horizon of our knowledge than if it had returned merely with the See also:information that the ` Sofia' had hoisted her See also:flag on the North See also:Pole." In the same year the See also:German arctic expedition under Karl Koldewey circumnavigated West Spitsbergen. In 1870 two See also:young Swedish savants, Drs Nathorst and Wilander, visited Spitsbergen in See also:order to examine the phosphoric deposits, and two years later a See also:colony was formed in Ice Fjord, and a small See also:tramway constructed to work the beds. The See also:attempt, however, did not prove successful. Leigh Smith and the Norwegian Captain Ulve visited and mapped parts of East Spitsbergen in 1871, returning with valuable information. They reached 81° 24' north. In the same year the first tourist steamer visited the archipelago. In 1872 a great polar expedition under Nordenskiold set out to winter on Spitsbergen with the intention of attempting in the spring to advance towards the pole on sledges See also:drawn by reindeer. But the expedition encountered a series of misfortunes.

The ships were beset in the ice very early in Mussel Bay, and, six Norwegian fishing vessels having been likewise overtaken and shut in, the expedition had to feed the crews on its provisions and thus to reduce the rations of its own men. The reindeer all made their See also:

escape during a snow-See also:storm; and when the sledge party reached the Seven Islands they found the ice so packed that all See also:idea of going north had to be abandoned. Instead of this, Nordenskiold explored North-East Land and crossed the vast ice-sheet which covers it. The expedition returned in 1873 with a fresh store of important scientific observations, especially in physics and submarine See also:zoology. In 1873 R. von Drasche-Wartinberg, the geologist, paid a See also:short visit to Spitsbergen, In 1882 the Swedish geologists, A. G. Nathorst and G. de Geer made a See also:journey which furnished interesting data about the geology and flora of the islands. In the same year a Swedish meteorological station was established at Cape Thordsen for carrying on the observations desired by the See also:international polar See also:committee. During the last See also:decade of the 19th century Spitsbergen attracted not only a number of scientists but also See also:sports-men and tourists. Such expeditions as those of Gustaf Nordenskiold in 1890 and the important circumnavigation by Nathorst in 1898, during which the Wiche Islands and White Islands were carefully explored, confined their attentions almost entirely to the coasts. In 1892 M. C.

Rabot made the first serious attempt to penetrate the interior from the head of Ice Fjord, exploring a part of the Sassendal; and in 1896 Sir Martin Conway led an expedition which crossed the island for the first time, and surveyed the region between Ice Fjord and Bell Sound on the east coast. In 1897 Conway and Mr E. J. Garwood surveyed the glaciated area north of Ice Fjord to about 78° 1o' N., and climbed Horn Sund Tind. In the same year Herr See also:

Andre made his fatal See also:balloon ascent from Danes Island with the intention of floating over the Pole. In 1896 a weekly service of Norwegian tourist steamers was established in summer, and a small See also:inn was built at Advent Bay in Ice Fjord, and though this was afterwards closed, the west coast continued to be frequently visited by tourist steamers during the height of summer. In 1898, 1899 and 1906 the prince of See also:Monaco made scientific investigations in the Archipelago, and in 1898—1902 Swedish and Russian expeditions undertook the measurement of an arc of the meridian, the results of which were accompanied by valuable physiographical, meteorological, botanical and other observations. Dr W. S. See also:Bruce made a See also:complete survey and scientific investigations of Prince Charles Foreland. In 1900 coal began to be worked on Advent Bay, a seam 10 ft. thick being found below 40 ft. of fossil ice and 20 ft. of See also:rock. This development and other considerations led to some discussion between the See also:powers interested as to the territorial See also:sovereignty over the archipelago, a question which though approached before (as in 1870) had never been brought to a settlement.

BIBL1oGRAPHHY.-On a land visited by so many scientific observers the literature is naturally voluminous. The chief source of scientific papers is the publications of the Swedish Vetenskaps Akademie. Sir W Martin Conway narrates his expedition in the First See also:

Crossing of Spitsbergen (London, 1897) ; and in No Man's Land (See also:Cambridge, 1906) he details the history of the Archipelago down to 184o, tabulates the principal voyages and incidents thereafter until 'goo, and furnishes a very full bibliography for the history and See also:geography of Spitsbergen from the earliest time down to 1902. The various observations of the Swedish expedition for the measurement of an arc of the meridian were brought together (in French) in See also:Missions scientifiques pour la mesure d'un arc de meridien an Spitzberg . . . (See also:Stockholm, 1903-1906), and those of the Russian expedition under the same See also:title in 1904, seq. (St. See also:Petersburg).

End of Article: SPITSBERGEN (the name being Dutch is incorrectly, though commonly, spelled Spitzbergen)

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