Online Encyclopedia
Search over 40,000 articles from the original, classic Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Edition.
GREENLAND (Danish, &c., Gronland)
Online EncyclopediaEncyclopedia Home :: GRA-GUI
del.icio.us it!
|
See also:GREENLAND (Danish, &c., Gronland) , a large See also:continental See also:island, the greater portion of which lies within the See also:Arctic Circle, while the whole is arctic in See also:character. It is not connected with any portion of See also:Europe or See also:America except by suboceanic ridges; but in the extreme See also:north it is separated only by a narrow strait from See also:Ellesmere See also:Land in the See also:archipelago of the See also:American See also:continent. It is bounded on the See also:east by the North See also:Atlantic, the See also:Norwegian and Greenland Seas—See also:Jan See also:Mayen, See also:Iceland, the See also:Faeroe Islands and the Shetlands being the only lands between it and See also:Norway. See also:Denmark Strait is the See also:sea between it and Iceland, and the See also:northern Norwegian Sea or Greenland Sea separates it from See also:Spitsbergen. On the See also:west See also:Davis Strait and See also:Baffin See also:Bay See also:separate . it from Baffin Land. The so-called bay narrows northward into the strait successively known as See also: The See also:area is estimated at 827,275 sq. m. Greenland is a Danish See also:colony, inasmuch as the west coast and also the See also:southern east coast belong to the Danish See also:crown. The scattered settlements of Europeans on the southern parts of the coasts are Danish, and the See also:trade is a See also:monopoly of the Danish See also:government.
The southern and See also:south-western coasts have been known, as will be mentioned later, since the loth See also:century, when Norse settlers appeared there, and the names of many famous arctic explorers have been associated with the exploration of Greenland. The communication between the Norse settlements in Greenland and the motherland Norway was broken off at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century, and the Norsemen's knowledge about their distant colony was gradually more or less forgotten. The south and west coast of Greenland was then re-discovered by See also: 2 Second See also:Grinnell Expedition (2 vols., See also:Philadelphia, 1856).
3 Davis, Polaris (Hall's) North Polar Expedition (See also:Washington, 1876). See also Bessels, See also:Die amerikanische Nor-disci-Expedition (See also:Leipzig, 1879).later this northern coast was probably visited by many Dutch whalers. The first who gave more accurate See also:information was the Scottish whaler, See also:Captain See also: F. See also:Nansen and his companions also travelled along a part of this coast in 1888.3 A. E. See also:Nordenskiold, in the " See also:Sophia," landed near Angmagssalik, in 65° 36' N., in 1883.9 Captain C. See also:Ryder, in 1891-1892, explored and mapped the large Scoresby Sound, or, more correctly, Scoresby Fjord10 See also:Lieutenant G. Amdrup, in 1899, explored the coast from Angmagssalik north to 67° 22' N1' A part of this coast, about 67° N., had also been seen by Nansen in 1882 12 In 1899 See also:Professor A.' G. Nathorst explored the land between See also:Franz Josef See also:Fjord and Scoresby Fjord, where the large See also: B. See also:Lockwood and Sergeant (afterwards Captain) D. L. Brainard, of the U.S. expedition to See also:Lady Franklin Bay,15 explored the north-west coast beyond Beaumont's farthest to a promontory in 83° 24' N. and 40° 46' E. and they saw to the north-east Cape Washington, in about 83° 38' N. and 39° 30' E., the most northerly point of land till then observed. In July 1892 R. E. See also:Peary and E. Astrup, See also:crossing by land from Inglefield Gulf, Smith Sound, discovered See also:Independence Bay on the north-east coast in 81° 37' N. and 34° 5' W.17 In May 1895 it ' See also:Journal of a Voyage to the Northern See also:Whale See also:Fishery (1823). 5 Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt (1873–1875). c Reise til Ostkysten of Gronland (1832; trans. by G. See also:Gordon Macdougall, 1837). 7 Meddelelser om Gronland, parts ix. and x. (See also:Copenhagen, 1888). 3 The First Crossing of Greenland, vol. i. (London, 1890), H. Mohn and F. Nansen; " Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse von Dr F. Nansen Durchquerung von Gronland " (1888), Erganzungsheft No. Io5 zu Petermanns Mitteilungen (See also:Gotha, 1892). ' A. F. Nordenskiold, Den andra Dicksonska Expeditionen til Gronland (See also:Stockholm, 1885). 10 Meddelelser om Gronland, pts. xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen, 1895–1896). 11 Geografisk Tidskrift, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899). 12 Ibid. vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1884). " 3 The See also:Geographical Journal, xiv. 534 (1899) ; xvii. 48 (1900,1 TM Somrar i Norra Ishafvet (Stockholm, 1901). " Meddelelser om Gronland, parts See also:xxvi.-See also:xxvii. Nares, Voyage to the Polar Sea (2 vols. London, 1877). See also See also:Blue See also:Book, See also:journals, &c., (Nares) Expedition, 1875–i 876 (London, 1877)- 15 A. W. Greely, See also:Report on the Proceedings of the See also:United States Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land, vols. i. and ii. (Washington, 1885) ; Three Years of Arctic Service (2 vols. London, 1886). 17 R. E. Peary, Northward over the " See also:Great See also:Ice " (2 vols. New See also:York, 1898) ; E. Astrup, Blandt Nordpolen's Naboer (See also:Christiania, 1895). was revisited by Peary, who supposed this bay to be a sound communicating with See also:Victoria Inlet on the north-west coast. To the north Heilprin Land and See also:Melville Land were seen stretching northwards, but the See also:probability seemed to be that the coast soon trended north-west. In 1901 Peary rounded the north point, and penetrated as far north as 83° 50' N. .The scanty exploration of 543 from the western margin, in 62° 50' NJ Nordenskiold penetrated in 1883 about 70 M. inland in 68° 20' N., and two Lapps of his expedition went still farther on skis, to a point nearly under 45° W. at an See also:elevation of 6600 ft. Peary and Maigaard reached in 1886 about See also:loo m. inland, a height of 7500 ft. in 69° 30' N. Nansen with five companions in 1888 made the first See also:complete crossing of the inland ice, working from the east coast to the west, about 64° 25' N., and reached a height of 8922 ft. Peary and Astrup, as already indicated, crossed in 1892 the northern part of the inland ice between 78° and 82° N., reaching a height of about 8000 ft., and deter-See also:mined the northern termination of the ice-covering. Peary made very nearly the same See also:journey again in 1895. Captain T. V. Garde explored in 1893 the interior of the inland ice between 61° and 62° N. near its southern termination, and he reached a height of 7080 ft. about 6o m. from the margin.2 t'-' e0 fs4,fs e °tW & e{ . Umivik Cyi/ee-rove Fiord C.Mtistlne I dloluarsuk Ak1 rmnarmiut ctl! ae,dttl. 71ngmIarm ut 'r ya „e,.ere,4,o tkermi,lt Puisorlok C. Anoret k ),MC” C. Kangerd lu suatsiak ~erroo r,o.n lVerer Ilcecasar5uak_ i eih w.r. " Long. W. 400 at crccu„¢p Coasts.—The coasts of Greenland are for the most part deeply indented with fjords, being in-tensely glaciated. The coast-See also:line of Melville Bay (the northern part of the west coast) is to some degree an exception, though the fjords may here be somewhat filled with glaciers, and, for another example, it may be noted that Peary observed a marked contrast on the north coast. Eastward as far as Cape See also:Morris See also:Jesup there are precipitous headlands and islands, as elsewhere, with deep See also:water close inshore. East of the same cape there is an abrupt See also:change; the coast is unbroken, the mountains recede inland, and there is shoal-water for a considerable distance from the coast. Numerous islands lie off the coasts where they are indented; but these are in no See also:case large, excepting those off the north coast, and that of Disco off the west, which is crossed by the parallel of 70° N. This island, which is separated by Waigat Strait from the Nugsuak peninsula, is lofty, and has an area of 3005 sq. m. Steenstrup in 1898 discovered in it the warmest See also:spring known in Greenland, having a temperature of 66° F. The unusual glaciation of the east coast is evidently owing to the north polar current carrying the ice masses from the north polar basin south-westward along the land, and giving it an entirely arctic See also:climate down to Cape Farewell. In some parts the interior ice-covering extends down to the See also:outer coast, while in other parts its margin is situated more inland, and the ice-See also:bare coast-land is deeply intersected by fjords extending far into the interior, where they are blocked by enormous glaciers or " ice-currents " from the interior ice-covering which See also:discharge masses of icebergs into them. The east coast of Greenland is in this respect highly interesting. All coasts in the See also:world which are much intersected by deep fjords have, with very few exceptions, a western exposure, e.g. Norway, Scotland, See also:British See also:Columbia and See also:Alaska, See also:Patagonia and See also:Chile, and even Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, whose west coasts are far more indented than their east ones. Greenland forms the most prominent exception, GREENLAND its eastern coast being quite as much indented as its western. The See also:reason is to be found in its geo- graphical position, a See also:cold ice-covered polar current See also:running south along the land, while not far out- See also:side there is an open warmer sea, a circumstance which, while producing a cold climate, must also give rise to much precipitation, the land being thus exposed to the alternate erosion of a rough rm.,,Y q, .. « See also:atmosphere and large glaciers. On the east coast of Baffin Land and Labrador there are similar conditions. The result is that the east .coast of Greenland has the largest See also:system of typical fjords known on the See also:earth's See also:surface. Scoresby Fjord has a length of about 18o m. from the outer coast to the point where it is blocked by the glaciers, and with its numerous branches covers an enormous area. Franz Josef Fjord, with its See also:branch King Oscar Fjord, com- municating with Davy's Sound, forms a system of fjords on a similar See also:scale. These fjords are very deep; the greatest See also:depth Meddelelser om Gronland, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879). 2 Ibid. part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896). 5 See also:English See also:Miles V. ,. So wo r5o zoo a$o goo Glaciers Capitals of Inspectorates 0 1. 3o C 6 the great ice-cap, or inland ice, which may be asserted to See also:cover the whole of the interior of Greenland, has been prosecuted chiefly from the west coast. In 1751 Lars Dalager, a Danish trader, took some steps in this direction from Frederikshaab. In 1870 Nordenskiold and Berggren walked 35 M. inland from the See also:head of Aulatsivik Fjord (near Disco Bay) to an elevation of 2200 ft. The Danish captain Jens See also:Arnold See also:Dietrich See also:Jensen reached, in 1878, the Jensen Nunataks (J400 ft. above the sea), about 45 M. found by Ryder in Scoresby Sound was 300 fathoms, but there are certainly still greater depths; like the Norwegian fjords they have, however, probably all of them, a See also:threshold or See also:sill, with shallow water, near their mouths. A few soundings made outside this coast seem to indicate that the fjords continue as deep submarine valleys far out into the sea. On the west coast there are also many great fjords. One of the best known from earlier days is the great Godthaab Fjord (or Baals Revier) north of 64° N. Along the east coast there are many high mountains, exceeding 6000 and 7000 ft. in height. One of the highest peaks hitherto measured is at Tiningnertok, on the Lindenov Fjord, in 6o° 35' N., which is 7340 ft. high. At the bottom of Mogens Heinesen Fjord, 62° 30' N., the peaks are 6300 ft., and in the region of Umanak, 63° N., they even exceed 6600 ft. At Urnivik, where Nansen began his journey across the inland ice, the highest See also:peak projecting through the ice-covering was Gamel's See also:Nunatak, 6440 ft., in 64° 34' N. In the region of Angmagssalik, which is very mountainous, the mountains rise to 6500 ft., the most prominent peak being Ingolf's Fjeld, in 66° 20' N., about 6000 ft., which is seen from far out at sea, and forms an excellent landmark. This is probably the Blaaserk (i.e. Blue See also:Sark or blue See also:shirt) of the old Norsemen, their first landmark on their way from Iceland to the Oster Bygd, the See also:present Julianehaab See also:district, on the south-west coast of Greenland. A little farther north the coast is much See also:lower, rising only to heights of 2000 ft., and just north of 67° To' N. only to 500 ft. or less.' The highest mountains near the inner branches of Scoresby Fjord are about 7000 ft. The Peterrnann Spitze, near the See also:shore of Franz Josef Fjord, measured by Payer and found to be 11,000 ft., has hitherto been considered to be the highest See also:mountain in Greenland, but according to Nathorst it " is probably only two-thirds as high as Payer supposed," perhaps between 8000 and 9000.ft. Along the west coast of Greenland the mountains are generally not quite so high, but even here peaks of 5000 and 6000 ft. are not uncommon. As a whole the coasts are unusually mountainous, and Greenland forms in this respect an interesting exception, as there is no other known land of such a See also:size so filled along its coasts on all sides with high mountains and deep fjords and valleys. The Inland Ice.—The whole interior of Greenland is completely covered by the so-called inland ice, an enormous See also:glacier forming a See also:regular See also:shield-shaped expanse of See also:snow and glacier ice, and burying all valleys and mountains far below its surface. Its area is about 715,400 sq. M., and it is by far the greatest glacier of the northern hemisphere. Only occasionally there emerge lofty rocks, isolated but not completely covered by the ice-cap; such rocks are known as nunataks (an Eskimo word). The inland ice rises in the interior to a level of 9000, and in places perhaps 10,000 ft. or more, and descends gradually by extremely See also:gentle slopes towards the coasts or the bottom of the fjords on all sides, discharging a great part of its yearly drainage or surplus of precipitation in the See also:form of icebergs in the fjords, the so-called ice-fjords, which are numerous both on the west and on the east coast. These icebergs See also:float away, and are gradually melted in the sea, the temperature of which is thus lowered by cold stored up in the interior of Greenland. The last remains of these icebergs are met with in the Atlantic south of See also:Newfoundland. The surface of the inland ice forms in a transverse See also:section from the west to the east coast an extremely regular See also:curve, almost approaching an arc of a wide circle, which along Nansen's route has its highest ridge somewhat nearer the east than the west coast. The same also seems to be the case farther south. The curve shows, however, slight irregularities in the shape of undulations. The See also:angle of the slope decreases gradually from the margin of the inland ice, where it may be I° or more, towards the interior, where it is o°. In the interior the surface of the inland ice is composed of dry snow which never melts, and is constantly packed and worked smooth by the winds. It extends as a completely even See also:plain of snow, with long, almost imperceptible, undulations or waves, at a height of 7000 to 10,000 ft., obliterating the features of the underlying land, the mountains and valleys of which are completely interred. Over the deepest valleys of the land in the interior this ice-cap must be at least 6000 or 7000 ft. thick or more. Approaching the coasts from the interior, the snow of the surface gradually changes its structure. At first it becomes more coarse-grained, like the Firn Schnee of the See also:Alps, and is moist by melting during the summer. Nearer the coast, where the melting on the surface is more considerable, the wet snow freezes hard during the See also:winter and is more or less transformed into ice, on the surface of which See also:rivers and lakes are formed, the water of which, however, soon finds its way through crevasses and holes in the ice down to its under surface, and reaches the sea as a sub-glacial See also:river. Near its margin the surface of the inland ice is broken up by numerous large crevasses, formed by the outward See also:motion of the glacier covering the underlying land. The steep ice-, walls at the margin of the inland ice show, especially where the motion of the ice is slow, a distinct striation, which indicates the strata of See also:annual precipitation with the intervening thin seams of dust (NordenskiOld's kryokonite). This is partly dust blown on ' See C. Kruuse in Geografisk Tidskrift, xv. 64 (Copenhagen, 1899). See also F. Nansen, " Die Ostkiiste Gronlands," Erganzungsheft No. I05 zu See also:Petermann Mitteilungen (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and pl. iv., See also:sketch No. i I.to the surface of the ice from the ice-bare coast-land and partly the dust of the atmosphere brought down by the falling snow and accumulated on the surface of the glacier's covering by the melting during the summer. In the rapidly moving glaciers of the ice-fjords this striation is not distinctly visible, being evidently obliterated by the strong motion of the ice masses. The ice-cap of Greenland must to some extent be considered as a viscous See also:mass, which, by the See also:vertical pressure in its interior, is pressed outwards and slowly flows towards the coasts, just as a mass of See also:pitch placed on a table and See also:left to itself will in the course of See also:time flow outwards towards all sides. The motion of the outwards-creeping inland ice will naturally be more See also:independent of the See also:con-figurations of the underlying land in the interior, where its thickness is so enormous, than near the margin where it is thinner. Here the ice converges into the valleys and moves with increasing velocity in the form of glaciers into the fjords, where they break off as ice-bergs. The drainage of the interior of Greenland is thus partly given off in the solid form of icebergs, partly by the melting of the snow and ice on the surface of the ice-cap, especially near its western margin, and to some slight extent also by the melting produced on its under side by the interior See also:heat of the earth. After Professor Amund Helland had, in July 1875, discovered the amazingly great velocity, up to 64; ft. in twenty-four See also:hours, with which the glaciers of Greenland move into the sea, the margin of the inland ice and its glaciers was studied by several expeditions. K. J. V. Steenstrup during several years, Captain See also:Hammer in 1879-188o, Captain Ryder in 1886–1887, Dr Drygalski in 1891–1893,2 and several American expeditions In later years, all examined the question closely. The highest known velocities of glaciers were measured by Ryder in the Upernivik glacier (in 73° N.), where, between the 13th and 14th of August of 1886, he found a velocity of 125 ft. in twenty-four hours, and an See also:average velocity during several days of See also:lot ft. (Danish).° It was, however, ascertained that there is a great difference between the velocities of the glaciers in winter and in summer. For instance, Ryder found that the Upernivik glacier had an average velocity of only 33 ft. in See also:April 1887. There seem to be periodical oscillations in the See also:extension of the glaciers and the inland ice similar to those that have been observed on the glaciers of the Alps and elsewhere. But these interesting phenomena have not hitherto been subject to systematic observation, and our knowledge of them is therefore uncertain. Numerous glacial marks, however, such as polished striated rocks, moraines, erratic blocks, &c., prove that the whole of Greenland, even the small islands and skerries outside the coast, has once been covered by the inland ice. Numerous raised beaches and terraces, containing shells of marine See also:mollusca, &c., occur along the whole coast of Greenland, and indicate that the whole of this large island has been raised, or the sea has sunk, in See also:post-glacial times, after the inland ice covered its now ice-bare outskirts. In the north along the shores of Smith Sound these traces of the See also:gradual upheaval of the land, or sinking of the sea, are very marked; but they are also very distinct in the south, although not found so high above sea-level, which seems to show that the upheaval has been greater in the north. In Uvkusigsat Fjord (72 ° 20' N.) the highest See also:terrace is 48o ft. above the sea.4 On Manitsok (65° 30' N.) the highest raised See also:beach was 36o ft. above the sea.b In the Isortok Fjord (67° II' N.) the highest raised beach is 38o ft. above sea-level$ In the Ameralik Fjord (64° 14' N.) the highest marine terrace is about 340 ft. above sea-level, and at Ilivertalik (63° 14' N.), north of Fiskernaes, the highest terrace is about 325 ft. above the sea. At Kakarsuak, near the Bjornesund (62° 50' N.), a terrace is found at 615 ft. above the sea, but it is doubtful whether this is of marine origin? In the Julianehaab district, between 60° and 61° N., the highest marine terraces are found at about 16o ft. above the sea .° The highest marine terrace observed in Scoresby Fjord, on the east coast, was 240 ft. above sea level.° There is a See also:common belief that during quite See also:recent times the west and south-west coast, within the Danish possessions, has been sinking. Al-though there are many indications which may make this probable, none of them can be said to be quite decisive.10 [See also:Geology.—So far as made out, the structure of explored Greenland is as follows: i. Laurentian See also:gneiss forms the greatest mass of the exposed rocks of the See also:country bare of ice. They are found on both sides of Smith Sound, rising to heights of 2000 ft., and underlie the See also:Miocene and Cretaceous rocks of Disco Island, Noursoak Peninsula and the 2E. v. Drygalski, Gronland-Expedition der Gesellschaft See also:fur Erdkunde zu See also:Berlin, 1891–1893 (2 vols., Berlin, 1897). Meddelelser om Gronland, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen, 1889). 4 Ibid., part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883) ; see also part xiv. pp. 317 et se q., ° Ibid. part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898). ° Ibid. part ii. pp. 181-188 (Copenhagen, 1881). 7 Ibid. part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879). °Ibid. part ii. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp. 150-154 (1896). ° Ibid., part xix. p. 175 (1896). 10 Ibid. part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347; part iv. p. 237 ; part viii. p. 26. Oolites of Pendulum Island in East Greenland. See also:Ancient See also:schists occur on the east coast south of Angmagssalik, and basalts and schists are found in Scoresby Fjord. It is possible that some of these rocks are also of Huronian See also:age, but it is doubtful whether the rocks so designated by the geologists of the " Alert " and " See also:Discovery " expedition are really the rocks so known in See also:Canada, or are a continuous portion of the fundamental or See also:oldest gneiss of the north-west of Scotland and the western isles. 2. See also:Silurian.—Upper Silurian, having a strong relation to the See also:Wenlock See also:group of See also:Britain, but with an American facies, and Lower Silurian, with a See also:succession much the same as in British North America, are found on the shores of Smith Sound, and Nathorst has discovered them in King Oscar Fjord, but not as yet so far south as the Danish possessions. 3. Devonian rocks are believed to occur in «Igaliko and Tunnudiorbik Fjords, in S.W. Greenland, but as they are unfossiliferous See also:sandstone, rapidly disintegrating, this cannot be known. It is, however, likely that this formation occurs in Greenland, for in See also:Dana Bay, Captain Feilden found a See also:species of Spirifera and Productus mesolobus or costatus, though it is possible that these fossils represent the " Ursa See also:stage " (Heer) of the Lower Carboniferous. A few Devonian forms have also been recorded from the See also:Parry Archipelago, and Nathorst has shown the existence of Old Red Sandstone facies of Devonian in See also:Traill Island, Geographical Society Island, Ymer Island and See also:Gauss Peninsula. 4. Carboniferous.—In erratic blocks of sandstone, found on the Disco shore of the Waigat have been detected a Sigillaria and a species of either Pecopteris'or Gleichenia, perhaps of this age; and probably much of the extreme northern coast of Ellesmere Land, and therefore, in all likelihood, the opposite Greenland shore, contains a clearly See also:developed Carboniferous See also:Limestone See also:fauna, identical with that so widely distributed over the North American continent, and referable also to British and Spitsbergen species. Of the See also:Coal See also:Measures above these, if they occur, we know nothing at present. Capt. Feilden notes as suggestive that, though the explorers have not met with this formation on the northern shores of Greenland, yet it was observed that a continuation of the direction of the known strike of the limestones of Feilden peninsula, carried over the polar area, passes through the neighbourhood of Spitsbergen, where the formation occurs, and contains certain species identical with those of the Grinnell Land rocks of this See also:horizon. The facies of the fossils is, according to Mr See also:Etheridge, North American and See also:Canadian, though many of the species are British. The See also:corals are few in number, but the See also:Molluscoida (See also:Polyzoa) are more numerous in species and individuals. No Secondary rocks have been discovered in the extreme northern parts of West Greenland, but they are present on the east and west coasts in more southerly latitudes than Smith Sound.
5. See also:Jurassic.—These do not occur on the west coast, but on the east coast the German expedition discovered marls and sandstones on See also:Kuhn Island, resembling those of the See also:Russian Jurassic, characterized by the presence of the genus Aucella, Olcostephanus Payeri, O. striolaris, Belemnites Panderianus, B. volgensis, B. absolutus, and a Cyprina near to C. syssolae. On the south coast of the same island are coarse-grained, brownish micaceous and See also:light-coloured calcareous sandstone and marls, containing fossils, which render it probable that they are of the same age as the coal-bearing Jurassic rocks of Brora (Scotland) and the See also:Middle Dogger of See also:Yorkshire. There is also coal on Kuhn Island.
The Danish expeditions of 1899-1900 have added considerably to our knowledge of the Jurassic rocks of East Greenland. See also:Rhaetic-See also:Lias See also:plants have been described by Dr Hartz from Cape See also: 6. Cretaceous.—Beds of this age, consisting of sandstones and coal, are found on the northern coast of Disco Island and the southern side of the Noursoak Peninsula, the beds in the former locality, " the Kome strata " of Nordenskiold, being the oldest. They reach loon ft. in thickness, occupying undulating hollows in the underlying gneiss, and See also:dip towards the Noursoak Peninsula at 20°, when the overlying Atanakerdluk strata come in. Both these See also:series contain numerous plant remains, See also:evergreen oaks, magnolias, aralias, &c., and seams of See also:lignite (coal), which is burnt; but in neither occur the marine beds of the United States. Still, the presence of dicotyledonous leaves, such as See also:Magnolia alternans, in the Atanakerdluk strata, proves their close See also:alliance with the Dakota series of the United States. The underlying Kome beds are not present in the American series. They are characterized by See also:fine cycads (Zamites arcticus and Glossozamites Hoheneggeri), which also occur in the Urgonian strata of Wernsdorff. 7. Miocene.—This formation, one of the most widely spread in polar lands, though the most See also:local in Greenland, is also the best known feature in its geology. It is limited to Disco Island, and perhaps to a small part of the Noursoak Peninsula, and the neighbouring country, and consists of numerous thin beds of sandstone, shale and coal—the sideritic shale containing immense quantities of leaves, stems, See also:fruit, &c., as well as some See also:insects, and the coal pieces of See also:retinite. The study of these plant and See also:insect remains shows that forests containing a vegetation very similar to that of See also:California and the southern United States, in some instances even the species of trees being all but identical, flourished in 70° N. during See also:geological periods comparatively recent. These beds, as well as the Cretaceous series, from which they are as yet only imperfectly distinguished, are associated with sheets of See also:basalt, which penetrate them in great dikes, and in some places, owing to the wearing away of the softer sedimentary rocks, stand out in long walls running across the beds. These Miocene strata have not been found farther north on the Greenland shore than the region mentioned; but in Lady Franklin Bay, on the Grinnell Land side of Smith Sound, they again appear, so that the chances are they will be found on the opposite coast, though doubtless the great disintegration Greenland has undergone and is undergoing has destroyed many of the softer beds of fossiliferous rocks. On the east coast, more particularly in See also:Hochstetter Foreland, the Miocene beds again appear, and we may add that there are traces of them even on the west coast, between Sonntag Bay and Foulke Fjord, at the entrance to Smith Sound. It thus appears that since See also:early See also:Tertiary times there has been a great change in the climate of Greenland. Nathorst has suggested that the wholeof Greenland is a "See also:horst," in the subordinate folds of which, as well as in the deeper " graben," the younger rocks are preserved, often with a covering of Tertiary or later See also:lava flows.'—J. A. H.] Minerals.-Native See also:iron was found by Nordenskiold at Ovifak, on Disco Island, in 187o, and brought to See also:Sweden(1871)as meteorites. The heaviest nodule weighed over 20 tons. Similar native iron has later been found by K. J. V. Steenstrup in several places on the west coast enclosed as smaller or larger nodules in the basalt. This iron has very often beautiful Widmannstatten figures like those of iron meteorites, but it is obviously of telluric origin? In 1895 Peary found native iron at Cape York; since John See also:Ross's voyage in 1818 it has been known to exist there, and from it the Eskimo got iron for their weapons. In 1897 Peary brought the largest nodule to New York; it was estimated to weigh nearly Too tons. This iron is considered by several of the first authorities on the subject to be of meteoric origin,' but no See also:evidence hitherto given seems to prove decisively that it cannot be telluric. That the nodules found were lying on gneissic See also:rock, with no basaltic rocks in the See also:neighbour-See also:hood, does not prove that the iron may not originate from basalt, for the nodules may have been transported by the glaciers, like other erratic blocks, and will stand erosion much longer than the basalt, which may long ago have disappeared. This iron seems, however, in several respects to be unlike the celebrated large nodules of iron found by Nordenskiold at Ovifak, but appears to resemble much more closely the softer See also:kind of iron nodules found by Steenstrup in the basalt;' it stands exposure to the See also:air equally well, and has similar Widmannstatten figures very See also:sharp, as is to be expected in such a large mass. It contains, however, more See also:nickel and also See also:phosphorus. A few other minerals may be noticed, and some have been worked to a small extent—See also:graphite is abundant, particularly near Upernivik; See also:cryolite is found almost exclusively at Ivigtut; See also:copper has been observed at several places, but only in nodules and laminae of limited extent; and coal of poor quality is found in the districts about Disco Bay and Umanak Fjord. Steatite or soapstone has long been used by the natives for the manufacture of lamps and vessels. Climate.—The climate is very uncertain, the See also:weather changing suddenly from See also:bright See also:sunshine (when mosquitos often swarm) to dense See also:fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds. At Julianehaab in the extreme south-west the winter is not much colder than that of Norway and Sweden in the same locality; but its mean temperature for the whole See also:year probably approximates to that on the Norwegian coast 600 m. farther north. The climate of the interior has been found to be of a continental character, with large ranges of temperature, and with an almost permanent See also:anti-cyclonic region over the interior of the inland ice, from which the prevailing winds radiate towards the coasts. On the 64th parallel the mean annual temperature at an elevation of 656o ft. is supposed to be -13° F., or reduced to sea-level 5° F. The mean annual temperature in the interior farther north is supposed to be -10° F. reduced to sea-level. The mean temperature of the warmest See also:month, July, in the interior should be, reduced to sea-level, on the 64th parallel 32° F., and that of the coldest month, See also:January, about -22° F., while in North Greenland it is probably -40° reduced to sea-level. Here we may probably find the lowest temperatures of the northern hemisphere. The interior of Greenland contains both summer and winter a See also:pole of cold, situated in the opposite See also:longitude to that of See also:Siberia, with which it is well able to compete in extreme severity. On Nansen's expedition temperatures of about -49° F. were experienced during ' See A. G. Nathorst, Bidrag till nordostra Gronlands geologi," with map Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Forhandlingar, No. 257, Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, See also:Flora fossilis Arctica (7 vols., 1868-1883), and especially Meddelelser om Gronland for numerous papers on the geology and palaeontology. 2 Medd. om Gronl., part iv. pp. 115-131 (Copenhagen, 1883). ' See Peary, Northward over the " Great Ice," ii. 604 et seq. (New York, 1898). ' See loc. cit. pp. 127-128. T8 the nights in the beginning of See also:September, and the minimum during the winter may probably sink to -90° F. in the interior of the inland ice. These See also:low temperatures are evidently caused by the See also:radiation of heat from the snow-surface in the rarefied air in the interior. The daily range of temperature is therefore very considerable, sometimes amounting to 40°. Such a range is elsewhere found only in deserts, but the surface of the inland ice may be considered to be an elevated See also:desert of snow.' The climate of the east coast is on the whole considerably more arctic than that of the west coast on corresponding latitudes; the land is much more completely snow-covered, and the snow-line goes considerably lower. The probability also is that there is more precipitation, and that the mean temperatures are lower.' The well-known strangely warm and dry fbhnwinds of Greenland occur both on the west and the east coast; they are more local than was formerly believed, and are formed by cyclonic winds passing either over mountains or down the outer slope of the inland ice.' See also:Mirage and similar phenomena and the See also:aurora are common. Fauna and Flora.—It was long a common belief that the fauna and flora of Greenland were essentially See also:European, a circumstance which would make it probable that Greenland has been separated by sea from America, during a longer See also:period of time than from Europe. The correctness of this See also:hypothesis may, however, be doubted. The land mammals of Greenland are decidedly more American than European; the See also:musk-ox, the banded See also:lemming (Cuniculus torquatus), the See also: At Tasiusak (73° 22' N.), the most northern civilized See also:settlement in the world, gardening has been attempted without success, but several plants do well in forcing frames. At Umanak (70° 40' N.) is the most northern See also:garden in the world. Broccoli and radishes grow well, turnips (but not every year), See also:lettuce and chervil succeed sometimes, but See also:parsley cannot be reared. At Jacobshavn ' H. Mohn, " The Climate of the Interior of Greenland," The See also:Scott. Geogr. See also:Magazine, vol. ix. (See also:Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145, 199; H. Mohn and F. Nansen, " Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," &c. Erganzungsheft No. 105 zu Petermanns Mitteilungen (1892), p. 51. ' On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V. Willaume-Jantzen, Meddelelser om Gronland, part ix. (1889), pp. 285-310, part xvii. (1895), pp. 171-180. ' See A. See also:Paulsen, Meteorolog. Zeitschrift (1889), p. 241; F. Nansen, The First Crossing of Greenland (London, 1890), vol. ii. pp. 496-497; H. Mohn and F. Nansen, " Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," &c. Erganzungsheft No. 105 zu Fetermanns Mitteibungen (1892), p. 51. 4 H. Winge, " Gronlands Fugle," Meddelelser om Grbnla9ld, part xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899). ' See J. See also:Lange, " Conspectus florae Groenlandicae," Meddelelser om Gronland, part iii. (Copenhagen, 188o and 1887) ; E. Warming, " Om Gronlands Vegetation," Meddelelser om Gronland, part xii. (Copenhagen, 1888); and in Botanische Jahrbiicher, vol. x. (1888-1889). See also A. Blytt, Englers Jahrbiicher, ii. (1882), pp. 1-5o; A. G. Nathorst, Otversigt of K. Vetenskap. Akad. Forhandl. (Stock-holm, 1884) ; ' Kritische Bemerkungen fiber die Geschichte der Vegetation Gronlands," Botanische Jahrbilcher, vol. xiv. (1891).(69° 12' N.), only some 15 M. from the inland ice, gardening succeeds very well ; broccoli and lettuce grow willingly ; the See also:spinach produces large leaves; chervil, See also:pepper-grass, leeks, parsley and turnips grow very well; the radishes are sown and gathered twice during the summer (See also:June to August). In the south, in the Julianehaab district, even flowering plants, such as See also:aster, nemophilia and See also:mignonette, are cultivated, and broccoli, spinach, See also:sorrel, chervil, parsley, See also:rhubarb, turnips, lettuce, radishes grow .well. Potatoes give See also:fair results when they are taken See also:good care of, carrots grow to a thickness of 11 in., while See also:cabbage does poorly. Strawberries and cucumbers have been ripened in a forcing See also:frame. In the " Kongespeil " (King's See also:mirror) of the 13th century it is stated that the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise See also:barley. The See also:wild vegetation in the height of summer is, in favourable situations, profuse in individual plants, though scanty in species. The plants are of the usual arctic type, and identical with or allied to those found in See also:Lapland or on the summits of the highest British hills. See also:Forest there is none in all the country. In the north, where the See also:lichen-covered or ice-shaven rocks do not protrude, the ground is covered with a See also:carpet of mosses, creeping See also:dwarf willows, See also:crow-berries and similar plants, while the See also:flowers most common are the See also:andromeda, the yellow See also:poppy, pedicularis, pyrola, &c. besides the flowering mosses; but in South Greenland there is something in the shape of See also:bush, the dwarf birches even rising a few feet in very sheltered places, the willows may grow higher than a See also:man, and the vegetation is less arctic and more abundant. Government and Trade.--The trade of Greenland is a monopoly of the Danish crown, dating from 1774, and is administered in Copenhagen by a government See also:board (Kongetige Gronlandske See also:Handel) and in the country by various government officials In See also:order to meet the See also:double purposes of government and trade the west coast, up to nearly 740 N., is divided into two inspectorates, the southern extending to 67° 40' N., the northern comprising the rest of the country; the respective seats of government being at Godthaab and Godhavn. These inspectorates are ruled by two See also:superior officials or See also:governors responsible to the director of the board in Copenhagen. Each of the inspectorates is divided into districts, each district having, in addition to the See also:chief settlement or coloni, several outlying posts and Eskimo See also:hunting 'stations, each presided over by an udligger, who is responsible to the colonibestyrer, or See also:superintendent of the district. These trading settlements, which dot the coast for a distance of l000 m., are about sixty in number. From the Eskimo hunting and fishing stations blubber is the chief See also:article received, and is forwarded in casks to the coloni, where it is boiled into oil, and prepared for being despatched to Copenhagen by means of the government See also:ships which arrive and leave between May and See also:November. For the rest of the year' See also:navigation is stopped, though the winter months form the busy seal-killing See also:season. The principle upon which the government acts is to give the natives low prices for their produce, but to sell them European articles of See also:necessity at See also:prime cost, and other stores, such as See also:bread, at prices which will scarcely pay for the See also:purchase and See also:freight, while no merchandise is charged, on an average, more than 20% over the cost See also:price in Denmark. In addition the Greenlanders are allowed to order goods from private dealers on paying freight for them at the See also:rate of 21d. per ro lb. or Is. 6d. per cub. ft. The prices to be paid for European and native articles are fixed every year, the prices current in Danish and Eskimo being printed and distributed by the government. Out of the See also:payment five-sixths are given to the sellers, and one-See also:sixth devoted to the Greenlanders' public fund, spent in " public See also:works," in charity, and on other unforeseen contingencies. The See also:object of the monopoly is solely for the good of the Greenlanders—to prevent See also:spirits being sold to them, and the See also:vice, disease and misery which usually attend the collision between natives and See also:civilization of the trader's type being introduced into the See also:primitive arctic community. The inspectors, in addition to being trade superintendents, are magistrates, but serious See also:crime is very rare. Though the officials are all-powerful, local See also:councils or parsissaet were organized in 1857 in every district. To these See also:parish parliaments delegates are sent from every station. These parsissoks, elected at the rate of about one representative to 120 voters, See also:wear a cap with a badge (a bear rampant), and aid the European members of the See also:council in distributing the surplus profit apportioned to each district, and generally in advising as to the welfare of that part of Greenland under their partial See also:control. The municipal council has the disposal of 20 of the annual value of imports, consisting of manufactured goods, foodstuffs, &c., may be taken somewhat to exceed £40,000. The chief articles of export (together with those that have lapsed) have been already indicated; but they may be summarized as including seal-oil, seal, fox, See also:bird and bear skins, fish products and eiderdown, with some quantity of worked skins. See also:Walrus tusks and walrus hides, which in the days of the old Norse settlements were the chief articles of export, are now of little importance. See also:Population.—The area of the entire Danish colony is estimated at 45,000 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 11,893. The Europeans number about 300. The Eskimo population of Danish Greenland (west coast) seems to have decreased since the middle of the 18th century. Hans See also:Egede estimated the population then at 30,000, but this is probably a large over-estimate. The decrease may chiefly have been due to infectious diseases, especially a very severe epidemic of smallpox. During the last See also:half of the 19th century there was on the whole a slight increase of the native population. The population fluctuates a good See also:deal, owing, to some extent, to an See also:immigration of natives from the east to the west coast. The population of the east coast seems on the whole to be decreasing in number, several hundreds chiefly living at Angmagssalik. In the north part of the east coast, in the region of Scoresby Fjord and Franz Josef Fjord, numerous ruins of Eskimo settlements are found, and in 1823 Clavering met Eskimo there, but now they have either completely died out or have wandered south. A little tribe of Eskimo living in the region of Cape York near Smith Sound—the so-called " Arctic Highlanders " or Smith Sound Eskimo—number about 240. See also:History.—In the beginning of the loth century the Norwegian Gunnbjorn, son of Ulf Krfika, is reported to have found some islands to the west of Iceland, and he may have seen, without landing upon it, the southern part of the east coast of Greenland. In 982 the Norwegian See also:Eric the Red sailed from Iceland to find the land which Gunnbjorn had seen, and he spent three years on its south-western coasts exploring the country. On his return to Iceland in 985 he called the land Greenland in order to make See also:people more willing to go there, and reported so favourably on its possibilities that he had no difficulty in obtaining followers. In 986 he started again from Iceland with 25 ships, but only 14 of them reached Greenland, where a colony was founded on the south-west coast, in the present Julianehaab district. Eric built his See also:house at Brattalid, near the inner end of the fjord Tunugdliarfik, just north of the present Julianehaab. Other settlers followed and in a few years two colonies had been formed, one called Osterbygd in the present district of Julianehaab comprising later about 190 farms, and another called Vesterbygd farther north on the west coast in the present district of Godthaab, comprising later about 90 farms. Numerous ruins in the various fjords of these two districts indicate now where these colonies were. Wooden coffins, with skeletons wrapped in coarse hairy See also:cloth, and both See also:pagan and Christian tombstones with runic See also:inscriptions have been found. On a voyage from Norway to Greenland Leif Ericsson (son of Eric the Red) discovered America in the year woo, and a few years later Torfinn Karlsefne sailed with three ships and about 150 men, from Green-land to Nova See also:Scotia to form a colony, but returned three years later (see See also:VINLAND).
When the Norsemen came to Greenland they found various remains indicating, as the old sagas say, that there had been people of a similar kind as those they met with in Vinland, in America, whom they called Skraeling (the meaning of the word is uncertain, it means possibly weak people); but the sagas do not report that they actually met the natives then. But somewhat later they have probably met with the Eskimo farther north on the west coast in the neighbourhood of Disco Bay, where the Norsemen went to catch seals, walrus, &c. The Norse colonists penetrated on these fishing expeditions at least to 730 N., where a small runic See also: The Danish residents may include, besides a coloni-bestyrer and his assistant, a missionais or clergyman, at a few places also a See also:doctor, and perhaps a See also:carpenter and a schoolmaster. In addition there are generally from twenty to several See also:hundred Eskimo, who live in huts built of stone and See also:turf, each entered by a See also:short See also:tunnel. Lately their houses in the colonis have also to some extent been built of imported wood. Following the west coast northward, the trading centres are these: in the south inspectorate, Julianehaab, near which are remains of the early Norse settlements of Eric the Red and his companions (the Oster-Bygd); Frederikshaab, in which district are the cryolite mines of Ivigtut; Godthaab, the See also:principal settlement of all, in the neighbourhood of which are also early Norse remains (the Vester-Bygd); Sukkertoppen, a most picturesque locality; and Holstenborg. In the north inspectorate the centres are: Egedesminde, on an islet at the mouth of Disco Bay; Christianshaab, one of the pleasantest settlements in the north, and Jacobshavn, on the inner shores of the same bay; Godhavn (or Lievely) on the south coast of Disco Island, formerly an important seat of the whaling industry; Ritenbenk, Umanak, and, most northerly of all, Upernivik. On the east coast there is but one coloni, Angmagssalik, in 650 30' N., only established in 1894. For ecclesiastical purposes Danish Greenland is reckoned in the See also:province of the See also:bishop of See also:Zeeland. The Danish See also:mission in Greenland has a yearly See also: It might be expected that there should be a decrease in the Greenland seal fisheries, caused by the European and American sealers catching larger quantities every year, especially along the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and so actually diminishing the number of the animals in the Greenland seas. The See also:statistics of South Greenland, however, do not seem to demonstrate any such decrease. The average number of seals killed annually is about 33,000.1 The 1 Owing to representations of the See also:Swedish government in 1874 as to the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Green-land, and the consequent loss of See also:young seals left to die of See also:starvation, the Seal Fisheries See also:Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for the establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas in question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to put its provisions in force, when any See also:foreign state, whose ships or subjects were engaged in the seal fishery in the area mentioned in the See also:schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar See also:pro-visions with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in council under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of April in each year, was issued See also:February 8, 1876. Rescinded February 15, 1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still operative. See also:Christianity was introduced by Leif Ericsson at the instance of See also:Olaf Trygvasson, king of Norway, in r000 and following years. In the beginning of the 12th century Greenland got its own bishop, who resided at Garolar, near the present Eskimo station Igoliko, on an See also:isthmus between two fjords, Igaliksfjord (the old Einarsfjord) and Tunugdliarfik (the old Eriksfjord), inside the present colony Julianehaab. The Norse colonies had twelve churches, one monastery and one nunnery in the Osterbygd, and four churches in the Vesterbygd. Greenland, like Iceland, had a republican organization up to the years 1247 to 1261, when the Greenlanders were induced to swear See also:allegiance to the king of Norway. Greenland belonged to the Norwegian crown till 1814, when, at the See also:dissolution of the See also:union between Denmark and Norway, neither it nor Iceland and the Faeroes were mentioned, and they, therefore, were kept by the Danish king and thus came to Denmark. The settlements were called respectively Oster Bygd (or eastern settlement) and Vester (western) Bygd, both being now known to be on the south and west coast (in the districts of Julianehaab and Godthaab respectively), though for long the view was persistently held that the first was on the east coast, and numerous expeditions have been sent in search of these " lost colonies " and their imaginary survivors. These settlements at the height of their prosperity are estimated to have had ro,000 inhabitants, which, however, is an over-estimate, the number having probably been nearer one-half or one-third of that number. The last bishop appointed to Greenland died in 1J40, but long before that date those appointed had never reached their See also:sees; the last bishop who resided in Greenland died there in 1377. After the middle of the 14th century very little is heard of the settlements, and their communication with the motherland, Norway, evidently gradually ceased. This may have been due in great part to the fact that the See also:shipping and trade of Greenland became a monopoly of the king of Norway, who kept only one See also:ship sailing at long intervals (of years) to Greenland; at the same time the shipping and trade of Norway came more and more in the hands of the Hanseatic See also:League, which took no See also:interest in Greenland. The last ship that is known to have visited the Norse colony in Greenland returned to Norway in 1410. With no support from See also:home the settlements seem to have decayed rapidly. It has been supposed that they were destroyed by attacks of the Eskimo, who about this period seem to have become more numerous and to have extended southwards along the coast from the north. This seems a less feasible explanation; it is more probable that the Norse s.ettlers intermarried with the Eskimo and were gradually absorbed. About the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century it would appear that all Norse colonization had practically disappeared. When in 1585 John Davis visited it there was no sign of any people See also:save the Eskimo, among whose traditions are a few directly See also:relating to the old Norsemen, and several traces of Norse See also:influence.' For more than two hundred years Greenland seems to have been neglected, almost forgotten. It was visited by whalers, chiefly Dutch, but nothing in the form of permanent European settlements was established until the year 1721, when the first missionary, the Norwegian clergyman Hans Egede, landed, and established a settlement near Godthaab. Amid many hardships and discouragements he persevered; and at the present See also:day the native See also:race is civilized and Christianized. Many of the colonists of the 18th century were convicts and other offenders; and in 1750 the trade became a monopoly in the hands of a private See also:company. In 1733-1734 there was a dreadful epidemic of smallpox, which destroyed a great number of the people. In 1774 the trade ceased to be profitable as a private monopoly, and to prevent it being abandoned the government took it over. Julianehaab was founded in then following year. In 1807-1814, owing to the See also:war, communication ' was cut off with Norway and Denmark; but subsequently the colony prospered in a languid See also:fashion Authorities.—As to the discovery of Greenland by the Norsemen and its early history see Konrad See also:Maurer's excellent See also:paper, " Geschichte der. Entdeckung Ostgronlands " in the report of Die zweite 'Cf. F. Nansen, Eskimo See also:Life (London, 1893). See also:GREENOCK deutsche Nordpolarfahrt I869-1 87o (Leipzig, 1874), vol. i.; G. See also:Storm, Studies on the " See also:Vineland " Voyages (Copenhagen, 1889) ; Extraits See also:des Memoires de la Societe Royale des Antiquaires du See also:Nord (1888),; K. J. V. Steenstrup, " Om Osterbygden," Meddelelser. onz Gronland, part ix. (1882), pp. 1-51; Finnur JBnsson, " Gronlands gamle Topografi efter Kilderne " in Meddelelser om Gronland, part xx. (1899), pp. 265-329; Joseph See also:Fischer, The Discoveries of the Norsemen in America, translated from German by B. H. Soulsby (London, 1903). As to the See also:general literature on Greenland, a number of the more important modern works have been noticed in footnotes. The often-quoted Meddelelser om Gronland is of especial value; it is published in parts (Copenhagen) since 1879, and is chiefly written in Danish, but each part has a See also:summary in See also:French. In part xiii. there is a most valuable See also:list of literature about Greenland up to 1880. See also Geographical Journal, passim. Amongst other important books on Greenland may be mentioned: Hans Egede, Description of Greenland (London, 1745) ; Crantz, History of Greenland (2 vols., London, 182o) ; Gronlands historiske Mindesmerker (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1838–1845) ; H. Rink, Danish Greenland (London, 1877); H. Rink, Tales of the Eskimo (London, 1875) ; (see also same, " Eskimo Tribes " in Meddelelser om Gronland, part xi.); Johnstrup, Giesecke's Mineralogiske Reise i Gronland (Copenhagen, 1878). (F. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
» Add information or comments to this article.
Please link directly to this article:
Highlight the code below, right click, and select "copy." Then paste it into your website, email, or other HTML. Site content, images, and layout Copyright © 2006 - Net Industries, worldwide. |
|
|
[back] GREENHOUSE PLANTS |
[next] GREENLAW (a " grassy hill ") |