NICKEL : 5 See also:

• BRONZE

Weights and See also:

• MEASURES

Egloffstein, Contributions to the See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

H. Noll, A See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

About 1325 they founded on the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

But they do not appear to have ever been so pronounced by the Spaniards, who naturally gave to the x its See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

Among variations from this type may be mentioned higher stature in some districts, and lighter complexion in See also:

• TEHUANTEPEC
• TEHUANTEPEC (from tecuani-tepec—" jaguar-hill ")

Further north, the Aleutian islands offer a See also:

• LINE

Inst., viii. 116). The native history of Mexico and Central America is entitled to more respect than the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

After this comes the creation of the four men and their wives who are the ancestors of the Quiches, and the tradition records the migrations of the nation to Tulan, otherwise called the Seven Caves, and thence across the sea, whose See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

Though the Central American native See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

That there is a basis of reality in the Toltec traditions is shown by the word toltecatl having become among the later Aztecs a substantive signifying an artist or skilled craftsman. It is further related by the Mexican historians that the Toltec nation all but perished in the I1th century by years of drought, See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

As one of the Aztec chiefs at the time of the See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

It was not merely for conquest and See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

The principal See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

The See also:

• LAWS

The armies were very large, an expedition often consisting of several divisions, each numbering eight thousand men; but the See also:

• TACTICS (Gr. TaeTOc*, sc. TEXvnI, from TavQecv, to arrange in order of battle)

Centeotl, the goddess of the all-nourishing maize, was patroness of the earth and mother of the gods, while Mictlanteuctli, lord of dead-land, ruled over the departed in the dim under-world. There were numbers of lesser deities, such as Tlazolteotl, goddess of pleasure, worshipped by courtesans, Tezcatzoncatl, god of strong drink, whose garment in grim See also:

• IRONY (Gr. dipaweLa, from eipwv, one who says less than he means, eiepees, to speak)

A large fraction of the Mexican population were set apart as priests or attendants to the services of the gods. The See also:

• RITES

7-70; but in this edition the Mexican See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

chants, See also:

• FASTING (from " fast," derived from old Teutonic fastejan; synonyms being the Gr. vnorebety, late Lat. jejunare)

For the great festival of Tezcatlipoca, the handsomest and noblest of the captives of the year had been chosen as the incarnate representative of the god, and paraded the streets for public See also:

• ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e. " carrying to one's mouth ")

The Mexican calendar depended on the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

The people watching from their flat housetops all the country round saw with joy the flame on the sacred hill, and hailed it with a thank-offering of drops of blood drawn from their ears with sharp stone-flakes. See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

Then the royal body was invested in the mantles of his patron-gods, especially that of the • war-god, for Mexican kings were warriors; on his face was placed a See also:

• MASK (Fr. masque, apparently from med. Lat. mascus, masca, spectre, through Ital. maschera, Span. mascara)

Tobacco, smoked in leaves or See also:

• CANE

The favourite game of patolli has been already mentioned for its similarity to the pachisi of modern India. The accounts given by Spanish writers of the Central Americans in their state after the Spanish conquest are very scanty in coln-parison with the voluminous descriptions of Aztec life. They bring out perfectly, however, the fact of close connexion between the two civilizations. Some Central-American peoples antral. were actually Mexican in their language and culture, American especially the Pipils and a large part of the population of See also:

• NICARAGUA

The archaeological and linguistic evidence proves also that a great part of Salvador and See also:

• HONDURAS

This fact is proved by the names of some places in Salvador, e.g. Santiago Nonohualco, San Juan Nonohualco and San Pedro Nonohualco. The word Nonohualco signifies in the Mexican language a place where a language changes, where another See also:

• IDIOM (Gr. t&%wµa, something peculiar and personal; lbws, one's own, personal)

It seems that there was formerly a mutual interpenetration between Lenca, Sumo and Chorotega tribes. The territories of all these tribes can be, more or less exactly, calculated by the existence of Indian local names. The Misquito country is characterized by names terminating in See also:

• LAYA, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1833)

We have the means of comparing the See also:

• PERSONAL

The teocallis built by the Nahua or Mexican nations have been mostly destroyed, but two remain at Huatusco and Tusapan (figured in Bancroft, iv. 443, 456), which bear a strong resemblance to those of Palenque. On the whole it is not too much to say that, in spite of See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

Thus the architectural remains, though they fail to solve the problem of the culture of the nations round the Gulf of Mexico, throw much light on it when their evidence is added to that of religion and customs. At any rate two things seem probable—first, that the civilizations of Mexico and Central America were pervaded by a common influence in religion, art, and custom; second, that this common See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

Seler, " Der Charakter der aztekischen and Maya-Handschriften " (Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, Berlin, 1888), and other papers in various German publications; See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

Its viceroy ruled over districts differing in status and with over-New Spain: lapping and conflicting authorities, some of these Extent. being appointed directly by the king of Spain, and responsible to him. New Spain in its widest meaning includes the audiencias or judicial districts of See also:

• MANILA

The first Franciscan See also:

• MISSION

Besides these there were five well-defined castas: mestizoes (Indian and white); mulattoes (negro and white); Zambos (negro and Indian), who were regarded as specially vicious and dangerous; native Indians and negroes. But there were about a dozen inter-mediate " named varieties," of which the See also:

• SALTO

For the next sixty years an urgent question was the prevention of floods in the capital. Situated oh the lowest of four lakes, The Drain- whose waters had only one small outlet from the age of the valley, it was only 4 ft. above the level of the Capital. lowest, and was flooded on an See also:

• AVERAGE

6 in. above the level of the lowest lake. The drainage was only satisfactorily accomplished at the end of the 19th century (see below). A negro revolt in the Vera Cruz region (1609) and an Indian See also:

• REBELLION

But the European wars of the 18th century had little effect on Mexico, save that the privileges of trade given to Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

The plan was devised as a means of rivalling Anglo-Saxon supremacy, but was rejected through fear of the mixed races predominating over the whites. A similar fear helped to keep down the tendencies inspired by French revolutionary literature, though plots occurred against the viceroy Branciforte in 1798 and 1799. But the real causes of the revolution were local. The chief was the Creole See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

Another priest, however, named See also:

• MORELOS

O'Donojil shortly after-wards died; the Spanish government repudiated his act; and Spanish troops held the fortress of San Juan de U16a, off Vera Cruz, till 1827. A provisional Junta, nominated by Iturbide, issued a declaration of independence (Oct. 1821), and nominated a regency of five, with Iturbide as its See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

The Federalists were strong enough to secure the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

2, 1831); and Guerrero, retiring to Acapulco, was enticed on See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Santa Anna appeared, nominally as a mediator, and put forward the bases of Tacubaya (See also:

• SEPT

It resulted in Santa Anna's downfall, imprisonment at Perote and eventual See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

There was an out-burst of warlike feeling in the United States (with a See also:

• COUNTER

That city was taken by General See also:

• SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550)
• SCOTT, DAVID (18o6-1849)
• SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835)
• SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887)
• SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878)
• SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART
• SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890)
• SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866)

After a sort of See also:

• INTERREGNUM (Lat. inter, between, and regnum, reign)