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See also:ARIZONA (from the See also:Spanish-See also:Indian Arizonac, of unknown meaning,—possibly " few springs,"-the name of an 18th-See also:century See also:mining See also:camp in the See also:Santa Cruz valley, just S. of the See also:present border of Arizona) , a See also:state on the S.W. border of the See also:United States of See also:America, lying between 3r 2o' and 37° N. See also:lat. and 1090 2' and 114° 45' W. See also:long. It is. bounded N. by See also:Utah, E. by New See also:Mexico, S. by Mexico and W. by See also:California and See also:Nevada, the See also:Colorado See also:river separating it from California-and in See also:part from Nevada. On the W. is the'See also:Great See also:Basin. Arizona itself is mostly included in the great and mountainous uplift of the Rocky See also:Mountain region, and partly within the See also:desert See also:plain region of the Gulf of California, or Open Basin region. The whole state lies on the See also:south-western exposure of a great roof whose See also:crest, along the See also:continental See also:divide in western New .Mexico, pitches southward. Its altitudes vary from 12,800 ft. to less than . 1 oo f t. above the See also:sea. Of its See also:total See also:area of 113,956 sq. m. (See also:water See also:surface, 116 sq. m.), approximately 39,000 See also:lie below 3000 ft., 27,000 from 3000 to 5000 ft., and 47,00o above 5000 ft. See also:Physical Features.—Three characteristic physiographic regions are distinctly marked: first the great Colorado See also:Plateau, some 45,000 sq. in. in area, embracing all the regiomN. and E. of a See also:line See also:drawn from the See also:Grand See also:Wash Cliffs in the N.W. corner of the state to its E. border near See also:Clifton; next a broad See also:zone of compacted mountain ranges with a See also:southern limit of similar trend; and lastly a region of desert plains, occupying somewhat more than the S.W. See also:quarter of the state. The plateau region has an See also:average See also:elevation of 6000-8000 ft. eastward, but it is much broken down in the See also:west. The plateau is not a plain. Itisdominated by high mountains,. gashed by superb canyons of See also:rivers, scarred with dry gullies and washes, the beds of intermittent streams, varied with great shallow basins, sunken deserts, dreary levels, bold buttes, picturesque mesas, forests and rare verdant bits of valley. In the N.W. there is a giddy drop. into the tremendous cut of. the Grand See also:Canyon (q.v.) of the Colorado river. The surface in See also:general is See also:rolling, with a See also:gentle slope See also:north-See also: In localities the slope is a true escarpment falling 15o and even 250 ft. per mile. In the See also:Aubrey Cliffs and along the Mogollon See also:mesa, which for about 200 M. parts the See also:waters of the Gila and the Little Colorado, it often has an elevation of moo to 2000 ft., and the ascent is impracticable through long distances to the most daring climber, It is not of course every-where so remarkable, or even distinct, and especially after its trend turns southward W. of Clifton; it is much broken down and obscured by erosion and lava deposits. The mountain region has a width of 7o to 15o m.; and is filled with See also:short parallel ranges trending parallel to the plateau escarpment. Many of the mountains, are See also:extinct volcanoes. In the See also:San Francisco mountains, in the north central part of the state, three peaks rise to from io,000 to 12,794 ft.; three gthers are above 9000 ft.; all are eruptive cones, and among the lesser summits are old cinder cones. The S.E. corner of Arizona is a region of greatly eroded ranges and gentle aggraded valleys. This mountain zone has an average elevation of not less than 4000 ft., while in places its crests are sooty ft. above the plains below. The line dividing the two regions runs roughly from Nogales on the Mexican border, past See also:Tucson; See also:Florence and See also:Phoenix to Needles (California), on the W. boundary. These plains, the third or desert region of the state, have their mountains also, but they are See also:lower, and they are not compacted; the plains near the mountain region slope toward the ' Gulf of California across wide valleys separated by isolated ranges, then across broad desert stretches traversed by rocky ridges, and finally there is no obstruction to the slope at all. Small parts of the desert along the Mexican boundary are shifting. See also:sand. See also:Climate.—As may be inferred from the physical description, Arizona has a wide variety of See also:local climates. In general it is characterized by wonderfully clear See also:air' and extraordinarily, See also:low humidity. The scanty rainfall is distributed from See also:July to See also:April, with marked excess from July to See also:September and a lesser maxi-mum in See also:December. May and See also:June are very dry. Often during a See also:month, sometimes for several months, no See also:rain falls over the greatest part of Arizona. Very little, rain comes from the Pacific or the Gulf of California, the mountains and desert, as well as the adverse winds, making it impossible. Rain and See also:snow fall usually from clouds blown from the Gulf of Mexico and not wholly dried in See also:Texas. The mountainous areas are the only ones of . adequate precipitation; the See also:northern slope of the Colorado Plateau is almost destitute of water; the region of least precipitation is the "desert " region. The mean See also:annual rainfall varies from amounts of 2 to 5.5 in. at various points in the lower gulf valley, and on the western border to amounts of 25 to 30 in. in the mountains. The highest recorded maximum in Arizona is 35 in. The proportion of perfectly clear days in the See also:year varies at different points from a See also:half to two-thirds; of the See also:rest not more than half are without brilliant See also:sunshine part of the See also:day. Local thunderstorms and See also:cloud-bursts are a characteristic phenomenon, inundating limited areas and transforming dried-up streams into muddy torrents carrying boulders and debris. Often in the plateau See also:country the dry under-air absorbs the rain as it falls; and rarely in the See also:Hopi Country do flooded gullies " run through " to the Little Colorado. The country of the cliff-dwellers in the N.E. is desert-like. Only points high in See also:altitude catch much rain. Mountain snows feed the Gila, the Little Colorado, and the Colorado rivers. The Colorado, apart from the Gila, draws little water from Arizona. The mountain zone W. of See also:Prescott drains into the Colorado, and to the S. and E. into the Gila; and the latter is by far the heavier drainage in See also:volume. The floods come in May and June, and during the wet See also:season the rivers, all with steep beds in their upper courses, wash along detritus that lower down narrows, and on smaller streams almost chokes, their courses. These gradients enable the inconstant streams tributary to the Colorado to carve their canyons, some of which are in themselves very remarkable, though insignificant beside the Grand Canyon. Many streams that are turned in See also:spring or by summer cloud-bursts into torrents are normally See also:mere water films or dry gulches. Even the Gila is dry in its See also:bed part of the year at its mouth near Yuma. From the Gila to the southern boundary the parched See also:land gives no water to the sea, and the See also:international boundary runs in part through a true desert. In the hot season there is almost no surface water. Artesian See also:wells are used in places; as in the stock country of the Baboquivari valley. The temperature of Arizona is somewhat higher than that of points of equal See also:latitude on the See also:Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts. In the mountains on the plateau it ranges from that of the temperate zone to that of regions of perpetual snow; S. of the mountains it ranges from temperate heats in the foothills to semi-tropic See also:heat in the lower valleys of the Gila and Colorado. The average annual temperature over the region N. of 349 N. is about 550; that of the region S. is about 68°. The warmest region is the lower Gila valley. Here the hottest temperature of the year hovers around 130°°, the mean for the hottest month (July) is about 98°, and the mean for the year is from 68.9°-74.40 F. at different points. Some parts of the Santa Cruz valley are equally hot. In the hottest (western) portions of the true desert on the Mexican border the daily maximum temperature is about ro° F.; but owing to the rapid See also:radiation in the dry, clear, cloudless air the temperature frequently falls 40—50° in the See also:night. The coldest points on the high plateau have annual means as low as 45-48°, and a mean for the coldest month at times below 20° F. The range from high to low extreme on the plateau may be as great as 125°, but in the S.W. it is only about 7o-8o° F. The daily variation (not uncommonly 6o° F.) is of course greatest in the most arid regions, where radiation is most rapid. And of all Arizona it should be said that owing to the extreme dryness of the air, evaporation from moist surfaces is very rapid,' so that the high temperatures here are decidedly less oppressive than much lower temperatures in a humid See also:atmosphere. The great difference between See also:absolute and sensible temperature is a very important See also:climatic characteristic 'of Arizona. Generally speaking, during two-thirds'of the year the temperature is really delightful; the nights are cool, the mornings bracing, the days mild though splendid. Intense heat prevails in July, See also:August and September. In lowness of humidity (mean annual relative humidity at Yuma about 39, at Phoenix 36.7, at Tucson 37.8) and clarity of atmosphere, southern Arizona rivals Upper See also:Egypt and other famous arid See also:health resorts. See also:Fauna and See also:Flora.—Within the See also:borders of Arizona are areas representative of every See also:life zone See also:save the humid tropical. From ' At Yuma, Phoenix and Tucson, the records of twenty-six, eighteen and fifteen years respectively show a See also:rate of evaporation 35.2, 12'7. and 7.7 times as great as the mean annual rainfall, which was 2.84 in., 7.06 in. and 11-7 in. for the places named. U. 18the See also:summit of the San Francisco Mountains one may pass rapidly through all these down into' the Painted Desert. The Boreal-See also:Canadian, Transition and Upper Sonoran embrace the highlands. Coyotes are very See also:common; See also:wild. See also:cats and mountain lions are fairly plentiful. See also:Deer and See also:antelope are represented by various See also:species. See also:Prairie-See also:dogs, See also:jack-rabbits, crows and occasional ravens, See also:quail, See also:grouse, pheasants and wild turkeys are also noteworthy in a rather scant See also:animal life. Characteristic forms of the Upper Sonoran zone are the burrowing See also:owl; Nevada See also:sage-See also:thrush, sage-thrasher and See also:special species of orioles, See also:kangaroo rats, mice, rabbits and squirrels. The Lower Sonoran covers the greatest part of southern and western Arizona, as well as the immediate valleys of the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers. Its animal life is in the See also:main distinguished in species only from that of the Upper Sonoran See also:belt, including among birds, the desert See also:sparrow, desert thrasher, mocking-See also:bird, hooded See also:oriole; and among mammals small nocturnal species of kangaroo rats, See also:pocket mice, mice and bats. Jaguars occasionally stray into Arizona from Mexico. Lizards and toads are conspicuous in the more desert areas. See also:Snakes are not numerous. The Gila-See also:monster, See also:tarantula, the See also:scorpion and' thelyphonus, scolopender and julus occur in some localities in the See also:rainy season. The Arid-Tropical zone is represented by a narrow belt along the lower Colorado river, with a short See also:arm extending into the valley of the Gila. The country is so arid that it supports only desert birds and mammals. Camels were very successfully employed as See also:pack animals on the Tule desert in the palmy days of See also:Virginia See also:City, Nevada, before the See also:advent of See also:railways. The general conditions of See also:distribution of the fauna of Arizona are shown even more distinctly by the flora. There are firs and spruces on the mountains, characteristic of the Boreal zone; pines characteristic of the Transition zone; pinon See also:juniper, greasewood and the universally conspicuous sage-See also:brush, characteristic of the Upper Sonoran zone. In the Lower Sonoran belt, soapweed, acacias (Palo Verde or Perkinsonia torreyana), agaves, yuccas and dasylirions, the See also:creosote See also:bush and See also:mesquite See also:tree, See also:candle See also:wood, and' about seventy-five species of cactuses—among them omnipresent opuntiae and great columnar " Chayas "—make up a striking vegetation, which in its See also:colours of duly See also:grey and See also:olive harmonizes well with the rigidity and forbidding barrenness of the plains.' It has' exercised' profound See also:influence upon the See also:industries, arts, faiths and general culture of the See also:Indians. In places the See also:giant See also:cactus grows in groves, attaining a height of 40 and even 5o ft. The mesquite varies in See also:size from a tangled thorny See also:shrub to a spreading tree as much as 3 ft. in See also:diameter and 5o ft. high;' it is normally perhaps half as high, and 6-8 in. in diameter. Enduring hardily great extremes of heat and moisture, it is throughout the arid South-west the most important, and in many localities the only important, native tree. From the great juicy, leafless, branchless stalk of the See also:yucca, See also:soap is prepared, and strong See also:fibres useful in making See also:paper, rope' and fabrics. The' fibre of the See also:agave is also made into rope and its juice into See also:pulque. The canaigre grows wild and is also cultivated. It is easy to exaggerate greatly the barrenness of an arid country. There are See also:fine indigenous See also:grasses that spring up over the mesas after the summer rains, furnishing range for live-stock; some are extraordinarily See also:independent of the rainfall. In the most arid' regions there is a small growth of See also:green in the rainy season, and a See also:rich display of small wild-See also:flowers, as well as the enormous See also:flower clusters of the yucca, and blooms in See also:pink and See also:orange, See also:crimson', yellow and See also:scarlet of the giant cactus and its See also:fellows. Even in the Mexican border, "desert See also:oak, juniper and manzanita See also:cover the mountains and there is a' vigorous though short-lived growth of 'grasses and flower from' July to See also:October. The cliff-dweller country supports 'a scant vegetation—a few cottonwood in the washes, a few cedars on the mesas. Continuous forest areas are scant. A See also:fair variety of trees—cottonwood, sycamore, ash, See also:willow, See also:walnut and cherry—grow in thickets in the canyons, and each mountain range is a forest area. Rainfall varying with the altitude, the lower See also:timber line below which precipitation is insufficient to sustain a growth of trees is about 7000 ft., and the upper timber line about 51,500 ft.
to
Oaks, juniper, pinon, cedars, yellow See also:pine, See also:fir and spruce grow on the mountains and over large areas of the plateau country.' The Coconino forest is one of the largest unbroken pine forests (about 6000 sq. m.) in the United States. Since 1898 about 86 % of the wooded lands have been made reservations, and See also:work has been done also to preserve the forest areas in the mountains in the south-See also:east, from which there are few streams of permanent flow to the enclosing arid valleys.
See also:Soil.—The soils in the southern part of Arizona are mainly sandy loams, varying from See also:light See also:loam to heavy, See also:close See also:adobe; on the plateaus is what is known as " mesa '' soil; and along the rivers are limited overflow plains of fine sediment—especially along the Colorado and the river Verde. These soils are in general rich, but deficient in See also:nitrogen and somewhat in humus; and in limited areas See also: The improved acreage more than quintupled from 188o to 1900. The total irrigated area in 1900 was 185,000 acres and in 1902, 247,250 acres. The increase in land values by irrigation from 1890 to 1900 is estimated at $3,500,000. A See also:reservoir was begun in 1904 just below the junction of the Tonto and the See also:Salt with capacity to See also:store 1,330,000 See also:acre-ft. for irrigation, and develop also an electric See also:power sufficient to See also:pump underground water for an additional 50,000 acres at the lowest estimate3 of lands lying too high for See also:supply by gravity. Another important undertaking begun about the same time was the throwing of an East Indian See also:weir See also:dam. (the only one in the United States) across the Colorado near Yuma, and the confinement of both sides of the lower Gila and Colorado with levees. Agriculture.—Strawberries and See also:Sahara See also:dates; alfalfa, See also:wheat, See also:barley, See also:corn and See also:sorghum; oranges,. lemons, See also:wine grapes, limes, See also:olives, See also:figs, dates, peanuts and sweet potatoes; yams and See also:sugar See also:beets, show the range of agricultural products. The date See also:palm fruits well; figs grow luxuriantly, though requiring much irrigation; almonds do well if protected from spring frosts; sea-See also:island See also:cotton grows in the finest grades, but is not of commercial importance. The country about Yuma is particularly suited to subtropical fruits. Temperate fruits—peaches, See also:pears, apples, apricots and small fruits—do excellently; as do all important vegetables. The See also:fruit See also:industry is becoming more and more important. Farming is very intensive, and See also:crop follows crop in See also:swift See also:succession; in 1905 the yield of barley, per acre, 44 bushels, was greater than in any other state or territory, as was the farm See also:price per See also:bushel on the 1st of December, 81 cents; the average yield per acre of See also:hay was the highest in the See also:Union in 1903, 3'46 tons, the general average being 1.54 tons,was See also:fourth in 1904, 2.71 tons (Utah 3' 54, See also:Idaho 3.07, Nevada 3.04), the general average being 1'52 tons, and was highest in 1905, 3'75 tons, the general average for the country being 1.54 tons; and in the same three years the average value per acre of hay was greater in Arizona than in any other state of the Union, being $35.78 in ' The San Francisco yellow pine forest, with an area of some 4700 sq. m., is the finest forest of the arid south-west. 2 The combined flow of the Salt and Verde varies from See also:loo to more than lo,000 cub. ft. per second. ' The dam locks a narrow canyon. The height is 284 ft., the water rising 230 ft. against it. The storage capacity is exceeded by probably but one reservoir in the world—the Wachusett reservoir near See also:Boston.1903, $40.22 in 1904, and $46.39 in 1905, the general averages fot the country being $13'93, $13'23 and $13.11 respectively, for the three years. . Of the total farm acreage of the state 97.6% were held in 1900 by the whites; and of these 80.2 % owned in whole or in part the land they cultivated. Stock-raising is a leading industry, but it has probably attained its full development. The over-See also:stocking of the ranges has caused much loss in the past, and the almost total eradication of fine native grasses over extended areas. Of the neat See also:cattle (7,042,635) almost 98 %, and of the See also:sheep (861,761) almost too %, were in 1900 pastured wholly or in part upon the public domain. The See also:extension of national forest reserves and the regulations enforced by the United States government for the preservation of the ranges have put limits to the industry. In 1900 the value of live-stock represented 15.7 % of the See also:capital invested in agriculture; the value of animals sold or slaughtered for See also:food ($3,204,758) was half the total value of all farm products ($6,997,097). See also:Ostrich farms have been successfully established in the Salt river valley since 1893; in 1907 there were six farms in the Salt river valley, on which there were about 1354 birds; the most successful food for the ostrich is alfalfa. Minerals.—Mining is the leading industry of Arizona. Contrary to See also:venerable traditions there is no See also:evidence that mining was practised beyond the most inconsiderable extent by See also:aborigines, Spanish conquistadores, or See also:Jesuits. In 1938 an extraordinary See also:deposit of See also:silver nuggets, quickly exhausted (1741), was discovered at Arizonac. At the end of the 18th century the Mexicans considerably See also:developed the mines in the south-east. The second half of the 19th century witnessed several great finds; first, of See also:gold placers on the lower Gila and Colorado (1858-1869); later, of lodes at Tombstone, which flourished from 1879-1886, then decayed, but in 1905 had again become the centre of important mining interests; and still later the development of See also:copper mines at See also:Jerome and around Bisbee. Several of the Arizona copper mines are among the greatest of the See also:world. The Copper See also:Queen at Bisbee from 1880-19o2 produced 378,047,210 lb of crude copper, which was practically the total output of ,the territory till after 1900, when other valuable mines were'gpened; the Globe, Morenci and Jerome districts are secondary to'l3isbee. Important mines of gold and silver, considerable deposits of See also:wolframite, valuable ores of ;See also:molybdenum and See also:vanadium, and quarries of See also:onyx See also:marble, are also worked. Low-grade See also:coal deposits occur in the east central part of the state and near the junction of the Gila and San Pedro rivers. Some fine gems of See also:peridot, See also:garnet and See also:turquoise have been found. The See also:mineral products of Arizona for 1907 were valued at $56,753,650;ofwhich$51,355,687 (more than thatof anyotherstate) was the value of copper; $2,664,000, gold; and $1,916,000, silver. In 1907 the legislature passed an elaborate See also:act providing for. the See also:taxation of mines, its See also:principal clause being that the basis of valuation for taxation in each year be one-fourth of the output of the mines in question for the next preceding year. Manufactures.—The manufacturing industries are of relatively slight importance, though considerable promise attends the experiments with canaigre as a source of See also:tannin. The See also:Navaho and Moqui Indians make woollen blankets and rugs and the Pimas baskets. Onyx See also:marbles of local source are polished at Phoenix. The capital invested in manufacturing industries increased from $9,517,573 in 1900 to $14,395,654 in 1905, or 51'3%, and the value of products from $20,438,987 in 1900 to $28,083,192 in 1905, or 37'4 %. Of the total product in 1905 the product of the principal industry, the smelting and refining of copper ($22,761,981), represented 81.1%; it was 9.4% of all the smelting and refining of copper done in the United States in that year. The other manufactures were of much less importance, the principal ones being cars and general See also:shop construction, including See also:repairs by See also:steam railway companies ($1,329,308), See also:lumber and timber products ($960,778), and See also:flour and grist See also: 3559), Jerome (pop. 189o, 25o; in 1900, 2861); See also:Winslow (pop. 1890, 363; in 1900, 1305), Nogales (pop. 1900. 1761), and Bisbee. The last was an insignificant mining camp in 188o, still unincorporated in 1900, but with an estimated population of 6000 in 1904. It is crowded picturesquely into several narrow confluent ravines. Railway connexion with El Paso was established in 1902. See also:Douglas is another growing camp. Over See also:thirty Indian tribes are represented in the Indian See also:schools of Arizona. The more important are the Hualapais or See also:Apache-Yumas; the Mohaves; the Yavapais or Apache-Mohaves; the Pumas, whose lesser neighbours on the lower Colorado are the most See also:primitive Indians of the United States .in habits; the Maricopas; the Pimas and Papagoes, who figure much in See also:early Arizona history, and who are See also:superior in intelligence, adaptability, application and See also:character; the Hopis or Moquis, possessed of the same See also:good qualities and notably temperate and provident, famous for their prehistoric culture (Tusuyan) ; the Navaho, and the kindred Apaches, perhaps the most relentless and See also:savage of Indian warriors. All the Indians of Arizona live on reservations save the few non-tribal Indians taxed and treated as active citizens. Even the Apaches after being whipped by relentless See also:war into temporary submission have been See also:bound by See also:treaties which the gifts, vices and virtues of the reservation See also:system have tempted them to observe. The Pimas and Papagoes were early converted by the Spaniards, and retain to-day a smattering of See also:Christianity plentifully alloyed with paganism. Apaches. Pimas, Papagoes have been employed by the United States on great irrigation See also:works, and have proved industrious and faithful labourers. In 1900 there were 1836 taxed Indians, 26,480 reservation Indians not taxed, and in addition many friendly Papagoes unenumerated. In i qo6 the Indian population was estimated as being 14 % of the whole population of Arizona, and that they are singularly See also:law-abiding is argued from the fact that in the same year the Indians furnished only 3 % of the convicts in the territorial See also:prison. Government and Education—Arizona became a territory of the first (or practically autonomous) class in 1863. Her organic law thereafter until 1910 consisted of various sections of the Revised Statutes of the United States. From the beginning she had a territorial legislature. See also:Congress retained ultimately See also:direct control of all government, See also:administration being in the hands of See also:resident officials appointed by the See also:president and See also:Senate. Special mention must be made of the See also:secret See also:police, the Arizona Rangers, organized in 19o1 to police the cattle ranges; they are " fearless men, trained in See also:riding, roping, trailing and See also:shooting," a force whose personnel is not known to the general public. The legislature repealed the law licensing public gambling in 1907; enacted a law requiring the See also:payment of $300 per annum as See also:licence See also:fee by See also:retail liquor dealers; and provided for juvenile courts and probationary control of See also:children. In 1907 the total tax valuation of See also:property was $77,705,251; the See also:net See also:debt of the territory $1,022,972, and that of counties and towns $3,123,275. The receipts of the territorial See also:treasury for the year ending on the 30th of June 1007 were $687,386, and the disbursements for the same See also:period were $6or,568. A See also:homestead See also:provision (1901) exempts from liability for debts (except mortgages or liens placed before the homestead claim) any homestead belonging to the See also:head of a See also:family, existing in one compact See also:body and valued at not more than $2500; such a homestead a married See also:man may not sell, See also:lease or put a See also:lien on without his wife's consent. See also:Personal property to the value of $5oo is exempt from the same liability,547 The public school system was established in 1871. A compulsory attendance law applies to children between 6 and 14 years of age, but it is not generally obeyed by the Mexican element of population. In 1907 there was an enrolment of 24,962 out of 33,167 children of school age; there were six high schools—three new in 1go6; and the average number of school days was 128.4. In the fiscal year ending June 1907, the total receipts for schools were $697,762, and the expenditures were $701,102. Illiteracy is high, amounting in 1900 to 23.1 % of native See also:males, above 21 years of age, and 30.5 % of foreign males, principally because of the large number of Indians, See also:Chinese, See also:Japanese and Mexicans in the state. There are two normal schools at See also:Tempe (1886) and Flagstaff (r 899), a university at Tucson with an agricultural experiment station that has done much for the industries of Arizona; there is a considerable number of Indian schools, the largest of which are maintained by the national government, and the funds of the university come largely from the same source. The first juvenile reform school, called the Territorial See also:Industrial school, was opened in 1903 at See also:Benson. The territorial prison, formerly at Yuma, was abandoned for a See also:modern See also:building at Florence, Pinal See also:county; and a See also:hospital for the insane is 3 M. from Phoenix. History.—The history of the South-west is full of See also:interest to the archaeologist. A prehistoric culture widely distributed has See also:left abundant traces. See also:Pueblo ruins are plentiful in the basins of the Gila and Colorado rivers and their tributaries. See also:Geographical conditions and a hard struggle against nature fixed the character of this " aridian " culture, and determined its migrations; the onslaughts of See also:nomad Indians determined the sedentary See also:civilization of the cliff dwellers. A co-operative social See also:economy is evidenced by the traces of great public works, such as canals many See also:miles in length. The See also:pueblos of the Gila valley are held to be older than those of the Colorado. Casa Grande, 15 M. S.E. of a railway station of the same name on the Southern Pacific railway, is the most remarkable of plain ruins in the South-west, the only one of its type in the United States. It resembles the Casa Grande ruin of See also:Chihuahua, Mexico, with its walls of See also:sun-dried piddled See also:clay, and its area of rooms, courts and plazas, surrounded by a See also:wall. It was already a ruin when discovered in 1694 by the Jesuit See also:father Kino. See also: See also:Migration was northward. The valleys of the Salt river and its affluents, the Agua Fria, Verde and Tonto, are strewn with aboriginal remains; but especially important in migrations of culture was the Little Colorado. A very considerable population must have lived once in this valley. It is represented to-day by the still undeserted habitats of Zuni (in New Mexico) and Tusayan; the lbloq_uis, after the Zunis, are in customs and traditions the best survival of the See also:ancient civilization. Arizona north of the Gila, save for a very limited and intermittent missionary effort and for scant exploring expeditions, was practically unknown to the whites until well after the beginning of See also:American See also:rule. The Santa Cruz valley, however, has much older See also:annals of a past that charms by its picturesque contrasts with the present. Arizona history begins with the arrival in Sonora in 1536 of Alvar See also:Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, who, although he had not entered Arizona or New Mexico, had heard of them, and by his stories incited the Spaniards to explore the unknown north in See also:hope of See also:wealth. Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan See also:friar to whom the first See also:reconnaissance was entrusted, was the first Spaniard to enter the limits of Arizona. He crossed the south-eastern corner to Zuni in 1S39, passing through the Santa Cruz valley; and F. V. de See also:Coronado (q.v.) was led by Fray Marcos over the same route in 1J4o; while Hernando See also:Alarcon explored the Gulf of California and the lower Colorado river. Members of Coronado's expedition explored the Moqui country and reached the Grand Canyon, and after this a succession of remarkable and heroic explorations followed through the century; which however accomplished little forgeography,further confusing and embellishing rather than clearing up its mysteries. All this has left traces in 'still living myths about the early history of the South-west. Early in the 17th century considerable progress had been made in Christianizing the Pimas, Papagoes and Moquis. Following 168o came a great Indian revolt in New Mexico and Arizona, and thereafter the Moquis remained independent of Spanish and See also:Christian domination, although visited fitfully by See also:rival Jesuits and See also:Franciscans. In 1732 (possibly in 1720) See also:regular Jesuit See also:missions were founded at Bac (known as an Indian rancheria since the 17th century) and at Guevavi. The region south of the Gila had already been repeatedly explored. In the second half of the century there was a presidio at Tubac (whose name first appears 1752) and some half-dozen pueblos de visita, including the Indian See also:settlement of Tucson.
A few errors should be corrected and some See also:credit given with reference to this early period. The See also:Inquisition never had any See also:jurisdiction whatever over the Indians; compulsory labour by the Indians was never legalized except on the missions, and the law was little violated; they were never compelled to work mines; of mining by the Indians for See also:precious metals there is no evidence; nor by the Jesuits (expelled in 1767, after which their missions and other properties were held by the Franciscans), except to a small extent about the presidio of Tubac, although they did some prospecting. Persistent traditions have greatly exaggerated the former prosperity of the old South-west. The Spaniards probably provoked some inter-tribal intercourse among the Indians, and did something among some tribes for agriculture. Their own farms and settlements, save in the immediate vicinity of the presidio, were often plundered and abandoned, and such settlement as there was was confined to the Santa Cruz valley. From about 1790 to 1822 was a period of See also:peace with the Apaches and of See also:comparative prosperity for See also: The See also:establishment of a presidio at Tucson in 1776 marks its beginning as a Spanish settlement.
The decay of the military power of the presidios during the Mexican war of See also:independence, the See also:expulsion of loyal Spaniards —notably friars—and the renewal of Apache See also:wars, led to the temporary See also:abandonment of all settlements except Tubac and Tucson. The church practically forsook the See also: A convention held in April 186o at Tucson undertook to " ordain and establish," of its own See also:motion, a provisional constitution until Congress should " organize a territorial government." This provisional territory constituted all New Mexico south of 340 40' N. Officials were appointed and New Mexican legislation for the Arizona counties ignored, but nothing further was done. In 1861 it was occupied by a Texan force, declared for the Confederacy, and sent a delegate (who was not admitted) to the Confederate congress. That body in January 1862 passed a formal act organizing the territory, including in it New Mexico, but in May 1862 the Texans were driven out by a Union force from California. Byact of the 24th of See also:February 1863 Congress organized Arizona territory as the country west of 109° W. long. In December an itinerant government sent out See also:complete from See also:Washington crossed the Arizona line and effected a formal organization. The territorial capital was first at Prescott (1863-1867), then at Tucson (1867-1877), again at Prescott (1877-1889), and finally at Phoenix (since 1889). There have been boundary difficulties with every contiguous state or territory. The early period of American rule was extremely unsettled. The California gold discoveries and over-land travel directed many prospecting adventurers to Arizona. For some years there was considerable sentiment favouring filibustering in Sonora. The Indian wars, breeding a See also:habit of dependence on force, and the heterogeneous elements of cattle thieves, Sonoran cowboys, mine labourers and adventurers led to one of the worst periods of American border history. But since about 188o there is nothing to See also:chronicle but a continued growth in population and prosperity. Agitation for statehood became prominent in territorial politics for some years. In accordance with an act of Congress, approved on the 16th of June 1906, the inhabitants of Arizona and New Mexico voted on the 6th of See also:November 1906 on the question of uniting the territories into a single state to be called Arizona; the See also:vote of New Mexico was favourable to union and statehood, but these were defeated by the vote of Arizona (16,265 against, 'and 3141 for statehood). In June 1910 the President approved an enabling act providing for the See also:admission of Arizona and New Mexico as See also:separate states. oBIBLIOGRAPHY.—For the Colorado river and the Grand Canyon see those articles; for the Sonoran boundary region, See also:Report of the Boundary See also:Commission upon the Boundaries between the United States and Mexico (3 vols., Washington, 1898–1899, also as Senate Document No. 247, vols. 23-25, 55 Congress, 2 Session) ; for the petrified forest of the Painted Desert, L. F. Ward in Smithsonian Institution Annual See also:Rep., 1899; for the rest of the area, various reports in the U.S. See also:Geological Survey publications, bibliography in Bulletin Nos. too, 179.—FAUNA and FLORA: U.S. See also:Department of Agriculture, North American Fauna, No. 3 (1890), No. 7 (1893) ; U.S. Biological Survey, Bulletin No. to (1898) ; publications of the Desert Botanical Laboratory at Tucson; also titles under See also:archaeology below, particularly See also:Bandelier's " Final Report."—CLIMATE, SOIL, AGRICULTURE: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Climate and Crop Service, Arizona, monthly reports, annual summaries; Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins.—MINERAL INDUSTRIES: U.S. Geological Survey publications, consult See also:bibliographies; The Mineral Industry, annual (New See also:York and See also:London).—GOVERNMENT: Arizona Revised Statutes (Phoenix, 1887) ; Report of the See also:Governor of Arizona Territory to the Secretary of the Interior, annual.—ARcHAEOLOGY : An abundance of materials in the Annual Report, U.S. See also:Bureau of See also:Ethnology for different years; consult also especially A. F. A. Bandelier, " Contributions to the History of the South-western Portion of the United States," in Archaeological See also:Institute f America, Papers, American See also:Series, vol. 5 (See also:Cambridge, 1890) ; Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the South-western United States," ib. vols. 3 and 4 (Cambridge, 1890–1892); other material may be found in Smithsonian Institution, Annual Report, 1896, 1897, &c, and many important papers by J. W. Fewkes, F. W. See also:Hodge, C. Mendeleff and others in the American Anthropologist and See also:Journal of American Ethnology.—HISTORY: H. H. See also:Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico (San Francisco, 1887) ; A. F. A. Bandelier, " See also:Historical Introduction to Studies among the Sedentary Indians of New Mexico," in Archaeological Institute of America, Papers, American Series, vol. i (Boston, 1881) ; The Gilded Man (El Dorado) and other Papers (New York, 1893) ; G. P. Winship, " The Coronado Expedition," in U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, 14th Annual Report (1892–1893), pp. 339-613, with an abundant literature to which this may be the See also:guide. The traditional errors respecting the early history of the Spanish South-west are fully exposed in the works of Bancroft and Bandelier, whose conclusions are supported by E. See also:Coues, On the Trail of a Spanish See also:Pioneer, Francisco Garces (2 vols. New York, 1900). Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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