FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE. The See also:

• TERM

In the same way the See also:

• OMAHAS

It is known as the metata, and is used both for grinding maize and for making the maize cakes known as tortillas. The same implement is apparently still in use in some parts of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

The runner, or upper stone, was provided with a wooden handle by which the stone was revolved: The typical See also:

• ROMAN

See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

See also:

• TURNER, CHARLES (1773–1857)
• TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM (1775–1851)
• TURNER, NAT (1800-1831)
• TURNER, SHARON (1768-1847)
• TURNER, SIR JAMES (1615–1686)
• TURNER, WILLIAM (d. 1568)

In the first break the stones would be placed just wide enough apart to " end " the wheat, and in each succeeding operation the stones were brought closer together. But Hungarian milling was not then automatic in the sense in which British millers understand the word. For a long time a great See also:

• DEAL

The largest of these more or less cubical particles are known as semolina, whilst the See also:

• MEDIUM

They were introduced into Great Britain in 1877, or thereabouts, and were used for several years, but ultimately they almost disappeared from British mills. This was partly due to the fact that as made at that date they were rather difficult to work, as it was not easy to keep the rolls perfectly parallel. Another See also:

• DRAWBACK

From that time the roller system made great progress. By 1885 many of the leading British millers had installed full roller See also:

• PLANTS

The wheat berry is a See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

The fuzzy end of the berry known as the See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

Besides the warehouse separator, which is made in different types and sizes, grading and sorting cylinders, and what are known as See also:

• COCKLE
• COCKLE, SIR JAMES (1819-1395)

But the miller must be careful not to overdo the scouring action and unnecessarily abrade the berry, else he will have trouble with his flour, the triturated bran breaking under the rolls and producing powder which will discolour the break flour. To remove such metallic fragments as nails, pieces of See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

In practice the second weigher is placed just before the first break. The cleansing of wheat by washing only became a fine See also:

• ART

The washer is followed by a whizzer, which is an apparatus intended to free the berry by purely See also:

• MECHANICAL

Here the object is to cleanse to some extent, and to warm and soften (by the condensation of moisture on the grain), but these processes are imperfect substitutes for a full washing and conditioning plant. Hard wheats will not be injured by a fairly long See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

The practice of drying damp flour has also good results. Long before the roller milling period it was found that only flour which had been dried (in a kiln) could safely be taken on long See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

The first pair of break-rolls used Break- to be called the splitting rolls, because their function was rolls. supposed to be to split the berry longitudinally down its crease, so as to give the miller an opportunity of removing the dirt between the two lobes of the berry by means of a brush machine. The dirt was in many cases no more than the placenta already described, which shrivelling up took, like all See also:

• VEGETABLE

For break-rolls up to 36 in. in length 9 in. is the usual diameter; for longer rolls to in. is the standard. To do good work rolls must run in perfect See also:

• PARALLELISM, PSYCHOPHYSICAL

A system of grading the tailings, that is, the rejections of the scalpers, introduced by See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

In good purifiers the strength of the current can be regulated at will in each See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

This pressure, however, must be applied with great discrimination, large semolina with impurities attached requiring quite different treat- ment from that called for by small pure middlings. The pressure on the stock must be just sufficient and no more. Reduction rolls are usually run at a differential speed of about 2 to 3. The feed must be carefully graded, because to pass stock of varying size through a pair of smooth rolls would be fatal to good work. Scratch rolls very finely grooved are used for cracking impure semolina or for reducing the tailings of purifiers. The latter often hold fragments of bran, which are best detached by rolls grooved about 36 to the inch and run at a differential of 3 to i. The reduction requires even more roll surface than the break system. To do first-class work a mill should have at least 35 to 40 in. on the breaks and 50 in. on the reduction for each sack of 280 lb of flour per hour. Many engineers consider too to 110 in. on the break, scratch and smooth rolls not too much. The dressing out of the flour from the stock reduced on smooth rolls is generally effected by centrifugal machines, which consist of a slowly revolving cylinder provided with an See also:

• INTERNAL

The centrifugal is undoubtedly an efficient flour separator, but the plansifters already mentioned are also good flour-dressers, especially in dry climates. A plansifter mill will have no centrifugals, except one or two at the tail end where the material gets more sticky and requires more severe treatment. The yield of flour obtained in a British roller mill averages 70 to 73% of the wheat berry. The See also:

• RESIDUE (through the French, from the Lat. residuum, a remainder, from residere, to remain)

E. Poutet, discovered that nitrous See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

See also:

• ANDREWS, JAMES PETTIT (c. 1737–1797)
• ANDREWS, THOMAS (1813–1885)