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half of the projection, the blade making a little over one turn round the shaft. For most requirements a diameter of screw from 32 to 42 ft. will be found sufficient, a sandy foundation requiring the largest. The lower end of the See also:

TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube is generally See also:

LEFT

left open, the edge being bevelled and occasionally provided with See also:

TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth to assist in cutting into and penetrating the See also:

SOIL

soil. Another See also:

SYSTEM

system of piling known as See also:

SHEET

sheet piling (fig. 8), consists in driving piles into the ground at intervals, and between these, also driven into the ground, are timbers measuring 3 in. by 9 in., which form a See also:

wall to keep the soft See also:

earth up under the building. In this way the earth is prevented from spreading out and so causing the building to See also:

settle unevenly.

Another See also:

KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of foundation, known as See also:

PLANK

plank foundation (fig. 9), consists of See also:

elm planks, about 9 in. by 3 in. laid across the See also:

TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886)

trench and spiked together; on the See also:

TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of these are laid similar planks but at right angles to the last, and upon the See also:

PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform thus formed the wall is built. This method is used in soft ground. Caissons are usually employed by See also:

ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers for the construction of the See also:

FOUNDATIONS

foundations of See also:

BRIDGE

bridge piers, but instances of their use in foundations for buildings are to be found in the See also:

AMERICAN

American Caissons, See also:

SURETY

Surety and the Manhattan See also:

LIFE

Life See also:

INSURANCE

Insurance buildings, New See also:

York See also:

CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City. The latter building is 242 ft. high to the See also:

PARAPET (Ital. parapetto, Fr. parapet, from para, imperative of Ital. porare, to cover, defend, and petto, breast, Lat. pectus; the German word is Brustwehr)

parapet, and the See also:

DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome and See also:

TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower rise to8 ft. higher, The building is carried on 16 solid See also:

MASONRY

masonry piers, taken down 54 ft. below the street level to solid See also:

rock, and these piers support the 34 cast iron columns upon which the building is erected. The piers to each building were constructed by the pneumatic See also:

CAISSON (from the Fr. caisse, the variant form " cassoon " being adapted from the Ital. casone)

caisson See also:

PROCESS

process (see CAISSON). A good See also:

plan for foundations when the ground is loose and sandy is to build upon See also:

wells of brickwork, a method which has been successfully practised in See also:

MADRAS

Madras. The wells are made circular, about 3 ft. in diameter and one See also:

BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick thick. The first course is laid and cemented together on the See also:

SURFACE

surface of the ground when it is dry, and the earth is excavated inside and round about it to allow it to sink. Then another is laid over it and again sunk. The well is thus built downwards. The brickwork is sunk bodily to a depth of to ft. or more, according Pile foundadons.

Plank foundations. Well founda• tions. to building to be erected upon it, and the interior is filled up with See also:

RUBBLE

rubble See also:

WORK

work. All the public buildings at Madras were erected upon foundations of this kind. Well foundations were employed under the city See also:

hall, See also:

KANSAS (known as the Sunflower State ")

Kansas City, and the Stock See also:

EXCHANGE

Exchange, Chicago. • See also:

COFFER (Fr. coffee, O. Fr. cofre or cofne, Lat. cophinus, cf. " coffin ")

Coffer dams are wooden structures used to keep back the water whilst putting in foundations on the waterside, and are constructed Coffer with two rows of timbers, 12 in. square as piles spaced dams. about 6 ft. apart, and filled in between with a See also:

double See also:

ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

row of 2 in. or 3 in. boards, the space between the rows being packed with See also:

clay puddle (fig. to). The See also:

general See also:

RULE

rule for the thickness of a coffer See also:

dam is to make it equal to the depth of water. An interesting example of a coffer dam is that at the Keyham See also:

DOCK

dock See also:

EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension, where piles varied in length from 65 ft. to 85 ft. They were driven in a double row 5 ft. apart, and over 13,000 were used. Dock foundations are constructed after the See also:

FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion of a large concrete tank, and are adapted to large sites where a difficulty Dock arises as to the See also:

INGRESS (Lat. ingresses, going in)

ingress of water. They are considered founds- the best method of constructing a building on soft ground etons. and of keeping a building dry (fig. II).

This type of foundation was used at the new colonial See also:

OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, See also:

WHITEHALL

Whitehall, See also:

LONDON

London, and the new See also:

ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF

admiralty buildings at St See also:

James's See also:

Park, London. A few buildings treated after the See also:

style of a dock, but in some instances without the enclosing walls, are the following: At the admiralty buildings already mentioned a concrete retaining wall completely surrounds the exterior below the ground, and is joined up to the underpinning work; the whole site being covered with concrete 6 ft. thick, a huge tank is formed of an average inside clear depth of 20 ft. in which the basements are built. The new " Old See also:

Bailey " buildings in Newgate Street, London, are constructed on a concrete table 5 ft. thick, as also are the See also:

Army and See also:

NAVY

Navy See also:

AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

Auxiliary Stores, See also:

Victoria Street. At Kennet's See also:

WHARF

Wharf, near See also:

SOUTHWARK

Southwark Bridge, a concrete table, 8 ft. thick, was spread all over the site, with an extra thickness under the walls. Foundations formed similarly to dock foundations, but in addition having steel joists and rods inserted in the thickness of the concrete table, to tie the whole together, are known as gridiron foundations. In the Hennebique concrete system, all beams, &c., are formed with small rods and then surrounded with concrete; it is designed for floors and for spreading the weight of a building over an extended foundation on soft ground. Where a heavy wall is to be built against an old one and there is not sufficient See also:

ROOM

room for the foundations, the plan is adopted of building See also:

PIER (older forms per or Pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word for piers out of water. For river piers, where a firm, watertight is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. Pierre, Lat. stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the pctr

pier foundations at some distance from the See also:

pro-posed See also:

CANTILEVER (a word of doubtful origin, probably derived from " lever," in its ordinary meaning, and " cant," an angle or edge, or else from modern Lat. quanta libra, of what weight)

cantilever new wall. On the top of these piers See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest foundesteel cantilevers over steel See also:

PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin rockers upon cast lions. iron bedplates; the cantilevers are secured at one end to a See also:

COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column, while the other ends go through the full thickness of the new wall. Upon these last ends is placed a steel girder upon which the wall is built. This construction (fig. 12) has been used in See also:

AMERICA

America, and in the Ritz Hotel, Piccadilly, London. Another form of cantilever foundations was employed in the case of some premises at Carr's See also:

Lane, See also:

BIRMINGHAM

Birmingham, partly built over the See also:

GREAT

Great Western railway See also:

TUNNEL (Fr. tonne!, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. tonna, tunna, a tun, cask)

tunnel (fig.

13). In this instance large piers were built below the ground at the See also:

side of the tunnel. From the tops of these piers large steel cantilevers were erected projecting over the See also:

CROWN

crown of the tunnel, and on these steel girders were fixed and the building constructed upon them. In See also:

MODERN

modern See also:

TUNIS

Tunis, a section of which city is built on marshy ground, the subsoil is an oozy sediment, largely deposited by the sewage water from the See also:

ancient or Arab quarter of the city, which is situated on an adjacent See also:

hill. This semi-fluid mud has a depth of about 33 ft. To prepare the soil for supporting an See also:

ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

house, pits from 8 ft. to to ft. square are excavated to a depth of about to ft., to the level of the ground water. A mixture is made of the excavated soil and powdered See also:

FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat See also:

lime, procured from clinkers and unburnt stone from the lime-kilns, which soon crumbles to See also:

FINE

fine dust when exposed to the See also:

air. The mixture is thrown into pits in layers about 12 in. thick and rammed down for a very See also:

long See also:

time by specially trained labourers. A gang of 15 or 20 men will work at least Io or 12 days ramming for the foundations of a moderate-sized house. An extremely hard See also:

bed is thus obtained, reaching to within 18 in. of the surface of the ground, and on this artificial bed the foundations of the building are laid. Although this method of construe- tion is crude, it is stated that the See also:

PRACTICAL

practical results are ` See also:

SUPERIOR

superior to those obtained by using piles, concrete or other recognized methods, and in all cases the cost is much less, for labour is cheap. A novel and interesting foundation was designed for a See also:

SIGNAL

signal station at Cape Henlopen, See also:

DELAWARE

Delaware.

This is built on top of the highest sandhill at Cape Henlopen, so Building that the observer may have an unobstructed on See also:

sand. view; it rises about 8o ft. above the level of the See also:

sea and is exposed to all winds and See also:

WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather, while it is absolutely required that it shall stand firmly planted in such a way that even a See also:

HURRICANE

hurricane shall not shake it or make it tremble, since that would affect the sight of the See also:

TELESCOPE

telescope in the See also:

OBSERVATORY

observatory. The usual mode of securing such a building is by means of a foundation of screw piles or of heavy timbers sunk into the sand; this method, however, has the disadvantage that if the See also:

wind shifts the sand away from around the foundation, it becomes undermined and its effect is destroyed. To avoid such an See also:

accident, recourse was had to the following See also:

DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design, which was considered to be cheap and at the same time to provide an effective anchorage. The building is entirely of See also:

wood; it has a cellar, above which are two rooms one above the other, and the whole is Foundations in Tunis. surmounted by the observatory proper. First, the ground See also:

sill is a square of 20 ft., made of yellow pine sticks mortised together and pinned with stout trunnels. The sill of the observatory is made Likewise of heavy timbers, 12 ft. long. The two sills are joined together by four stout yellow pine corner posts, which in turn are mortised into both sills. The posts are 26 ft. in length. Five feet above the lower sill is the sill which supports the See also:

FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of the first room. Ten feet above this is the sill which supports the upper room. Both these sills again are mortised into the corner posts.

The structure is sheathed outside with See also:

German siding, and inside with rough boards covered with See also:

FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt, and again by tongued and grooved yellow pine boards. The observatory proper, octagonal in shape, is securely mortised into the top sill and covered with a tan of bceamanfi. corrugated iron roof conical in shape. The cellar is floored with 3 in. wood, and boarded all round on the inside of the posts. A See also:

PIT (O. E. pytt, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfutze, &c., all ultimately adaptations of Lat. puteus, well, formed from root pu-, to cleanse, whence gurus, clean, pure)

pit was first dug in the sand about 6 ft. deep and fully 20 ft. wide on the bottom. The cellar sill was laid on this bottom, and the structure built upon it; thus the whole depth of cellar is sunk below the top of the hill or the level of the sand. The cellar was then filled up with sand and packed solid all round, consequently the building is anchored in its place by the load in the cellar, about See also:

LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo tons in weight. The subject of foundations, being naturally of the first importance, is one that calls for most careful study. It is not of so much importance that the ground be hard or even rocky as that it be compact and of similar consistency throughout. It is not always that a site answers to this description, and the problem of what will be the best form of foundation to use in placing a building, more especially if that building be of large dimensions and consequently great weight, on a site of soft yielding soil, is one that is often most difficult of See also:

SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution. The foregoing See also:

ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article indicates in a brief manner some of the obstacles the architect or engineer is required to surmount before his work can even be started on its way to completion.

End of Article: LONGITUDINAL

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