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wall, has been suggested as showing some connexion. Some popular Lat. form as macio or mattio is probably the origin. No Teut. word, according to the New English See also:

DICTIONARY

Dictionary, except that which appears in " See also:

MATTOCK (O.E. mattuc, of uncertain origin)

mattock," seems to have any bearing on the ultimate origin. 842 stones were used in much smaller sizes. As See also:

time went on the art of masonry advanced till in England, in point of See also:

EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution, it at length rivalled that of any See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country. Tools.—The mason's tools may be grouped under five heads—hammers and mallets, saws, See also:

CHISELS

chisels, setting-out and setting tools, and hoisting appliances. There are several different kinds of See also:

IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron hammers used by the stone worker; the mash See also:

HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer has a See also:

SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short handle and heavy See also:

head Hammers for use with chisels; the iron hammer, used in carving, and Mallets, in shape resembles a See also:

carpenter's See also:

mallet but is smaller; the See also:

waller's hammer is used for roughly shaping stones in See also:

RUBBLE

rubble work; the spalling hammer for roughly dressing stones in the quarry; the See also:

SCABBLING, or SCAPPLING

scabbling-hammer, for the same purpose, has one end pointed for use on hard stone; the pick has a See also:

long head pointed at both ends, weighs from 14 to 20 lb, and is used for rough dressing and splitting; the axe has a See also:

double See also:

WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge-shaped head and is used to bring stones to a fairly level See also:

FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face preparatory to their being worked smooth; the patent axe, or patent hammer, is formed with a number of plates with sharpened edges bolted together to form a head; the mallet of hard See also:

wood is used for the See also:

FINISHING

finishing chisel work and carving; and the dummy is of similar shape but smaller. A See also:

hand saw similar to that used by the carpenter is used for cutting small soft stones. Larger blocks are cut with the two-handed Saws. saw worked by two men.

For the largest blocks the See also:

FRAME

frame saw is used, and is slung by a rope and pulleys fitted with See also:

BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance weights to relieve the operator of its weight. The blade is of See also:

PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain See also:

STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel, the cutting See also:

ACTION

action being supplied by See also:

sand with See also:

WATER

water as a lubricant constantly applied: There are perhaps even more varieties of chisels than of hammers. The point and the See also:

PUNCH

punch have very small cutting edges, a See also:

QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of an See also:

INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch or less in width. The former is used on the Chisels. harder and the latter on the softer varieties of stone after the rough hammer dressing. The pitching See also:

TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool has a wide thick edge and is used in rough dressing. Jumpers are shafts of steel having a widened edge, and are used for See also:

BORING

boring holes in hard stone. Chisels are made with edges from a quarter-inch to one and a See also:

HALF

half inches wide: those that exceed this width are termed boasters. The claw chisel has a number of See also:

TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth from one-eighth to three-eighths wide, and is used on the See also:

SURFACE

surface of hard stones after the point has been used: The See also:

DRAG (from the Old Eng. dragan, to draw; the word preserves the g which phonetically developed into w)

drag is a semi-circular steel See also:

PLATE

plate, the straight edge having teeth cut on it. It is used to level down the surfaces of soft stones. Cockscombs are used for the same purpose on See also:

MOULDINGS

mouldings and are shaped to various curves.. Wedges of various sizes are used in splitting stones and are inserted either in holes made with the jumper or in chases cut with the stone-pick.

The implements for setting out the work are similar to those used, Setting-out by the bricker and tradesmen, square, set squa e,othe See also:

BEVEL (from an O. Fr. word, cf. mod. biveau, a joiner's instrument)

bevel capable of being set the to and Setting any required See also:

ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle, compasses, spirit level, plumb-See also:

RULE

rule Too/s. and bob and See also:

MORTAR

mortar trowels. Gauges and moulds are required in sinking moulds to the proper See also:

section. Nippers . See also:

Lewis See also:

HOLT, SIR JOHN (1642–1710)

Holt. The nippers (fig. I), or See also:

SCISSORS

scissors, as they are sometimes termed, have two hooked arms fitting into notches in the opposite sides of Hoisting the See also:

block to be lifted. These arms are riveted together Appliances. in the same way as a pair of scissors, the upper ends having rings attached for the insertion of a rope or See also:

CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain which when pulled tight in the operation of lifting causes the hooked ends to grip the stone. Lewises (fig. 2.) are wedge-shaped pieces of steel which are fitted into a dovetailed See also:

MORTISE, or MORTICE (adapted from the Fr. mortaise; cf. Ital. mortise and Spanish mortaja; the origin is unknown; Celtic equivalents, such as Gaelic moirteis, are of French origin)

mortise in the stone to be hoisted. They are also used for setting blocks too large to be set by hand, and are made in several forms. These are the usual methods of securing the stone to the hoisting rope or chain, the hoisting being effected by a See also:

PULLEY

pulley and fall, by a See also:

crane, or by other means. Scaffolding.—For rubble walls single scaffolds, resting partly on the walls, similar to those used for See also:

BRICKWORK

brickwork (q.v.), are emploed ; for See also:

ASHLAR

ashlar and other gauged stonework (see below) self-supporting scaffolds are used with a second set of See also:

STANDARDS

standards and ledgers erected See also:

close to the wall, the whole See also:

STANDING

standing entirely See also:

INDEPENDENT

independent.

The See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason for the use of this double See also:

scaffold is that otherwise holes for the putlogs to See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest in would have to be See also:

LEFT

left in the wall, and obviouslyin an ashlar stone wall it would be impossible properly to make these See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good on the removal of the scaffold (see further SCAFFOLD). Seasoning Stone.—Stone freshly quarried is full of See also:

sap, and thus admits of being easily worked. On being exposed to the See also:

air the sap dries out, and the stone becomes much harder in consequence. For this reason, and because See also:

CARRIAGE

carriage charges are lessened by the smaller bulk of the worked stone as compared with the rough block, the stone for a building is often specified to be quarry-worked. See also:

VITRUVIUS (MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO)

Vitruvius recommended that stone should be quarried in summer when driest, and that it should be seasoned by being allowed to See also:

lie two years before being used, so as to allow the natural sap to evaporate. In the erection of St See also:

Paul's Cathedral, See also:

Sir See also:

CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (Christophorus, Christoferus)

Christopher See also:

Wren required that the stone after being quarried should be exposed for three years on the See also:

sea-See also:

BEACH

beach before its introduction into the building. The See also:

REGULAR

regular and determined form of bricks makes it to a large extent a See also:

MATTER

matter of practice to enable a See also:

man to become a good See also:

BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick-layer, but beyond these a continual exercise of See also:

JUDGMENT

judgment is required of the workman in stone, who has for the most part to See also:

DEAL

deal with masses of all forms and of all sizes. Setting Stones.—All beds and See also:

JOINTS

joints should be truly worked and perfectly level. If the surface be See also:

CONVEX

convex it will give rise to wide unsightly joints; if See also:

CONCAVE

concave the weight thrown on the stone will rest on the edges and probably cause them to " flush " or break off and disfigure the work. Large stones are placed in position with the aid of hoisting appliances and should be tried in position before being finally set. Great care should be taken to avoid fracturing or chip-ping the stone in the See also:

PROCESS

process of handling, as it is impossible to make good such damage. All stratified stones—and this includes by far the largest proportion of building stones—when set in a level position should be laid on their natural See also:

bed, i.e. with their laminae See also:

HORIZONTAL

horizontal.

The greatest strength of a. stone is obtained when the laminae lie at right angles to the pressure placed upon it. In the See also:

case of See also:

ARCHES, COURT OF

arches these layers should be parallel with the centre See also:

LINE

line of the voussoirs and at right angles to the face of the See also:

arch. For cornices (except the corner-stones) and work of a like nature, the stone is set with the laminae on edge and perpendicular to the face of the work. With many stones it is easy to determine the bed by moistening with water, when the laminae will become apparent. Some stones, however, it is impossible to read in this way, and it is therefore advisable to have them marked in the quarry. A horizontal line in a quarry does not in all cases give the proper bed of the stone, for since the deposits were made ages ago natural upheavals have possibly occurred to alter the " lie " of the material. For the shafts of columns especially it is necessary to have the layers horizontally placed, and a stone should be selected from a quarry with a bed of the required See also:

DEPTH

depth. An example of the omission of this precaution is visible in the arcading of the Royal Courts of See also:

JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

Justice, See also:

LONDON

London, where the small shafts of the front See also:

ARCADE

arcade in red See also:

SANDSTONE

sandstone have been turned with the laminae in a See also:

VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical position, with the result that nearly every See also:

shaft is flaking away or is cracked. Use of Mortar.—See BRICKWORK. Of whatever quality the stone may be of which a wall is built, it should consist as much of stone and as little of mortar as possible. Only See also:

FINE

fine mortar is admissible if we are to obtain as thin joints as possible. The joints should be well raked out and pointed in See also:

Portland See also:

CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement mortar.

This applies only to some sandstones, as marbles and many limestones are stained by the use of Portland cement. For these a See also:

SPECIAL

special cement must be employed, composed of See also:

PLASTER

plaster of See also:

Paris, See also:

lime, and See also:

MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble or stone-dust. Bonding.—See also:

Bond (see BRICKWORK) is of not less importance in stone walling than in brickwork. In ashlar-work the work is bonded uniformly, the joints being kept perpendicularly one over the other; but in rubble-work, instead of making the joints recur one over the other in alternate courses they should be carefully made to See also:

lock, so as to give the strength of two or three courses or layers between a See also:

JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint in one course and the joint that next occurs vertically above it in another course. In the through or transverse bonding of a wall a good proportion of header stones See also:

RUNNING

running about two-thirds of the distance through the width of the wall should be provided to bind the whole structure together. The use of through stones, i.e. stones running through the whole thickness of the wall from front to back, is not to be recommended. Such stones are liable to fracture and convey See also:

DAMP

damp to the See also:

INTERNAL

internal face. Slip Joints.—As with brickwork so in masonry great care must be exercised to prevent the different parts of a building settling unequally. When two portions of a building differing considerably in height come together, it is usual to employ a slip or housed joint instead of bonding the walls into each other. This arrangement allows the heavier work to See also:

settle to a greater extent than the low portion without causing any defect in the stones. Footings.—The footings of stone walls should consist of large stones of even thickness proportionate to their length; if possible they should be the full breadth in one piece. Each course should be well bedded and levelled.

Walling.—T here are broadly speaking two classes of stone walling: rubble and ashlar. Rubble walls are built of stones more or less irregular in shape and size and coarsely jointed. Ashlar walls are constructed of carefully worked blocks of regular dimensions and set with fine joints. See also:

RANDOM (older forms randon, randrun; from the French, cf. randir, to run quickly, impetuously; generally taken to be of Teutonic origin and connected with Ger. Rand, edge, brim, the idea being possibly of a brimming river)

Random Rubble (fig. 3) is the roughest form of stonework. It is built with irregular pieces of stone usually less than 9 in. thick, loosely packed without much regard to courses, the interstices between the large stones being occupied by small ones, the remaining crevices filled up with mortar. Bond stones or headers should be used frequently in every course. This form of walling is much used in stone districts for boundary walls and is often set dry.without mortar. For this work the mason uses no tool but the See also:

TROWEL (Med. Eng. truel, O. Fr. truelle, Low Lat. truella, a variant of trulla, diminutive of trua, stirring spoon, ladle, Gr. ropbvrt, from the root tar, to turn round and round; cf. ropebs, borer)

trowel to See also:

lay on the mortar, the scabbling hammer to break off the most repulsive irregularities from the stone, and the plumb-rule to keep his work perpendicular. Coursed Rubble (fig. 4) is levelled up in courses 12 or 18 in. deep, the depth varying in different courses according to the sizes of the stones. The stones are dressed by the workman before he begins building, to obtain a fairly level bed and perpendicular face.

Irregularly Coursed Squared Rubble is a development of uncoursed random rubble, the stones in this case being squared with the hammer and roughly faced up with the axe. The courses jump abruptly from one level to another as the sizes of the blocks demand; the interstices are filled in with small pieces of stone called "specks." For Coursed Squared Rubble the stone is faced in a similar manner and set in courses, the depth of each course being made up of one or more stones. In Regular Coursed Rubble all the stones in one course are of the same height. Block-in-course is the name applied to a form of stone walling that has some of the characteristics of ashlar but the execution of which is much rougher. The courses are usually less than 12 in. high. It is much used by See also:

ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers for waterside and railway work where a good See also:

APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance is desired. The Angles or See also:

QUOINS (an old variant spelling of " coin," from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

Quoins of rubble-work are always carefully and precisely worked and serve as a See also:

GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon)

gauge for the rest of the walling. Frequently the quoins and jambs are executed in ashlar, which gives a neat and finished appearance and adds strength to the work. The name Ashlar is given, without regard to the finish of the face of the stone, to walling composed of stones carefully dressed, from 12 to 18 in. deep, the mortar joints being about an eighth of an inch or less in thickness. No stone except the hardest should exceed in length three times its depth when required to resist a heavy load and its breadth should be from one and a half to three times its depth. The hardest stone may have a length equal to four or perhaps five times its depth and a width three times its depth. The face of ashlar-work may be plain and level, or have rebated, chamfered, or moulded joints.

The great cost of this form of stonework renders the employment of a backing of an inferior nature very See also:

general. This backing varies Backing to according to the See also:

DISTRICT

district in which the building operations Stonework. districts being carried on, being rubble stonework in stone districts and brick or concrete elsewhere, the whole being thoroughly tied together both transversely and longitudinally with bondstones. In England a stone much used for backing ashlar and Kentish rag rubble-work is a soft sandstone called " hassock." In the districts where it is quarried it is much cheaper than brick-work. (For brickbacking see BRICKWORK.) Ashlar facing usually varies from 4 to 9 in. in thickness. The work must not be all. of one thickness, but should vary in See also:

order that effective bond with the backing may be obtained. If the work is in courses of uneven depth the narrow courses are made of the greater thickness and the deep courses are narrow. It is sometimes necessary to secure the stone facing back with iron ties, but this should be avoided wherever possible; as they are liable to See also:

RUST (O.E. rust, a word which appears in -many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. roest, Ger. rost); in origin it is allied with " ruddy " and " red," the reddish-brown powdery substance which forms on the surface of iron or steel exposed to atmospheric corrosio

rust and split the stonework. When it is necessary to use them they should be covered with some protective coating. The use of a backing to a stone wall, besides lessening the cost, gives a more equable temperature inside the building and pre-vents the transmission of wet by capillary attraction to the interior, which would take See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place if single stones were used for the entire thickness. All work of this description must be executed in Portland cement, mortar of good strength, to avoid as much as possible the unequal See also:

settlement of the deep courses of stone facing and the narrower courses of the brick or rough stone backing. If the backing is of brick it should never be less than 9 in. thick, and whether of stone or brick it should be levelled up in courses of the same thickness as the ashlar. There are many different sorts of walling, or modes of structure, arising from the nature of the materials available in various localities.

That is perhaps of most frequent occurrence in which Waling. either squared, broken, or See also:

ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round flints are used. This, when executed with care, has a distinctly decorative appearance. To give stability to the structure, lacing courses of tiles, bricks or dressed stones are introduced, and brick or stone piers are built at intervals, thus forming a See also:

flint panelled wall. The quoins, too, in this type of wall are formed in dressed stone or brick work. Uncoursed rubble built with irregular blocks of ragstone, au unstratified See also:

rock quarried in See also:

Kent, is in great favour for facing the See also:

EXTERNAL

external walls of churches and similar works (fig. 5). r7y' l y v?, ~!!U ' /r.. ~ r i i, ' !'Y i Kentish Roao,,s,lbr.e Wallino, cy0fi ashlar'£liindow See also:

DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress 5: :irs3s and sTrin~s. Pointing.—As with brickwork this is generally done when the work is completed and before the scaffolding is removed. Suitable See also:

WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather should be chosen, for if the weather be either frosty or too hot the pointing will suffer. The joints are raked out to a depth of half an inch or more, well wetted, and then refilled with a fine mortar composed specially to resist the action of the weather. This is finished See also:

FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat or compressed with a special tool to a shaped joint, the usual forms of which are shown in fig.

End of Article: MASONRY

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