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FINISHING

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Originally appearing in Volume V10, Page 382 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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FINISHING . The See also:

term finishing, as specially applied in the textile See also:industries, embraces the See also:process or processes to which bleached, dyed or printed fabrics of any description are subjected, with the See also:object of imparting a characteristic See also:appearance to the See also:surface of the fabric, or of influencing its handle or feel. Strictly speaking, certain operations might be classed under this heading which are conducted previous to See also:bleaching, See also:dyeing, &c.; e.g. See also:mercerizing (q.v.), stretching and crabbing, singeing (see BLEACHING); but as these are not undertaken by the finisher, only those will be dealt with here which are not mentioned under other headings. By the various treatments to which the fabric is subjected in finishing, it is often so altered in appearance that it is impossible to recognize in it the same material that came from the See also:loom or from the bleacher or See also:dyer. On the other See also:hand, one and the same fabric, subjected to different processes of finishing, may be made to represent totally different classes of material. In other cases, however, the appearance of the finished See also:article differs but slightly from that of the piece on leaving the loom. All processes of finishing are purely See also:mechanical in See also:character, and the most important of them depend upon the fact that in their See also:ordinary See also:condition (i.e. containing their normal amount of moisture), or better still in a See also:damp See also:state, the textile See also:fibres are plastic, and consequently yield to pressure or tension, ultimately assuming the shape imparted to them. The old-fashioned See also:box See also:press, formerly largely used for See also:household See also:linen, owed its efficacy to this principle. At elevated temperatures the damp fibres become very much more plastic than at the ordinary temperature, the simplest See also:form of finishing appliance based on this fact being the ordinary See also:flat See also:iron. Indeed it may safely be stated that most of the See also:modern finishing processes have been evolved from the household operations of washing (milling), brushing, starching, mangling, ironing and pressing. See also:Cotton Pieces.—In the ordinary process of bleaching, cotton goods are subjected during the various operations to more or less continual See also:longitudinal tension, and while becoming elongated, shrink more or less considerably in width. In See also:order to bring them back to their See also:original width, they are stretched or " stentered " by means of specially constructed See also:machines.

The most effective of these is the so-called stentering See also:

frame, which consists essentially of two slightly diverging endless chains carrying clips or pins which hold the piece in position as ittraverses the See also:machine. The length of a frame may vary from 20 to 30 yds. On the upper See also:part of the frame the chains run in slots, and by means of set screws the distance between the two chains can be set within the required limits. The pieces are fed on to one end of the machine in the damp state by hand and are then naturally slack. But before they have travelled many yards they become taut,_the stretching increasing as they travel along. Simultaneously with the stretching, the pieces are dried by a current of hot See also:air which is blown through from below, so that on arriving at the end of the machine they are not only stretched to the required degree but are also dry. The machine used for stentering is more fully described under MERCERIZING (q.v.). In See also:case the goods come straight from the loom to be finished, stentering is not necessary. Pieces intended to receive a " pure " finish pass on without further treatment to the ordinary finishing processes such as calendering, hot pressing, raising, &c. But in the See also:majority of cases they are previously impregnated, according to the finish desired, with stiffening or softening agents, weighting materials, &c. Usually, See also:starch constitutes the See also:main stiffening See also:agent, with additions of See also:china See also:clay, See also:barium compounds, &c., for weighting purposes, and See also:Turkey red oil, with or without the addition of some See also:vegetable oil or See also:fat, as the softening agent. See also:Magnesium sulphate is also largely used in order to give " See also:body " to the See also:cloth, which it does by virtue of its See also:property of crystallizing in See also:fine felted See also:needle-shaped crystals throughout the See also:mass of the fabric.

When starch is used in filling, it is advisable to add some See also:

anti-septic, such as See also:zinc chloride, See also:sodium silicofluoride, phenol or salicylic See also:acid, in order to prevent or retard subsequent development of See also:mildew. The impregnation of the pieces with the filling is effected in two ways, viz. either throughout the thickness of the cloth or on one surface only (back starching). When the whole piece is to be impregnated the operation is conducted in a starching See also:mangle, which is similar in construction to an ordinary household mangle, though naturally larger and more elaborate in construction. The pieces run at full width through a trough situated immediately below the See also:bowls and containing the filling (starch See also:paste, &c.), then between the bowls, the pressure (" nip ") of which regulates the amount of filling taken up, and thence over a range of See also:steam-heated drying cylinders (see BLEACHING). In case one See also:side only of the goods is to be stiffened—and this is usually necessary in the case of printed goods,—a so-called back-starching mangle is employed. The construction of the machine varies, but the simplest form consists essentially of a wooden bowl a (fig. I) which runs in the starch paste See also:con- tained in trough t. The pieces pass from the batch-See also:roller B, through scrimp rails S and over the bowl under tension, touching the surface from which they gather the starch paste. By FIG. 1.—Principle of Back-Starching Machine. means of the fixed " See also:doctor " blade d, which extends across the piece, the paste is levelled on the surface of the fabric and excess scraped off, falling back into the trough. The goods are then dried with the See also:face side to the cylinders. Some goods come into the See also:market with no further treatment after starching other than See also:running through a mangle with a little softening and then drying, but in the See also:great majority of cases they are subjected to further operations.

Damping.—When deprived of their natural moisture by drying on the See also:

cylinder drying machine, cotton goods are not in a See also:fit condition to undergo the subsequent operations of calendering, beetling, &c., since the fibres in the dry state have lost their plasticity. The pieces are consequently damped to the desired degree, and this is usually effected in a damping machine in passing through which they meet with a fine spray of See also:water. A See also:simple and effective See also:device for this purpose is shown in See also:section in fig. 2. It consists essentially of a See also:brass roller r running in water IO FINISHING contained in a trough or box t. Touching the brass roller is a See also:brush roller b which revolves at a high See also:speed, thus spraying the water, which it takes up continuously from the wet revolving brass roller in all directions, and consequently also against the piece which passes in a stretched condi- tion over the See also:top of the box, being batch roller over over scrimp rails S, and batched again on the other side on roller R. The level of the water in the trough is kept See also:constant. Calendering.—The See also:calender may be regarded as an elaboration of the ordinary mangle, from which, however, it differs essentially inasmuch as one or more of the rollers or bowls are made of See also:steel or iron and can be treated either by See also:gas or steam; the other bowls are made of compressed cotton or See also:paper. Three distinct forms of calender are in use, viz. the ordinary calender, the See also:friction calender and the See also:embossing calender. The number of bowls in an ordinary calender varies between two and six according to the character of the finish for which it is intended. In a modern five-bowl calender the bottom bowl is made of See also:cast iron, the second of compressed cotton or paper, the third of iron being hollow and fitted with steam See also:heating apparatus. The See also:fourth bowl is made of compressed cotton, and the fifth of cast iron.

The pieces are simply passed through for " swissing," i.e. for the See also:

production of an ordinary See also:plain finish. The same calender may also be used for " See also:chasing," in which two pieces are passed through, face to face, in order to produce an See also:imitation linen finish. Moire or " watered " effects are produced in a similar way, but these effects are frequently imitated in the embossing calender. The friction calender, the object of which is to produce a high See also:gloss on the fabric, differs from the ordinary calender inasmuch as one of the bowls is caused to revolve at a greater speed than the others. In an ordinary three-bowl friction calender the bottom bowl is made of cast iron, the See also:middle one of compressed cotton or paper, and the top one (the friction bowl) of highly polished chilled iron. The last-named bowl, which has a greater peripheral speed than the others, is hollow and can be heated either by steam or gas. The embossing calender is usually constructed of two bowls, one of which is of steel and the other of compressed cotton or paper. The steel roller, which is hollow and can be heated either by steam or gas, is engraved with the See also:pattern which it is desired to impart to the piece. If the pattern is deep, as is the case in the production of See also:book cloths, it is necessary to run the machine empty under pressure until the pattern of the steel bowl has impressed itself into the cotton or paper bowls, but if the effect desired only consists of very fine lines, this is not necessary; for instance, in the production of the Schreiner finish, which is intended to give the pieces (especially after mercerizing) the appearance of See also:silk, the steel roller is engraved with fine See also:diagonal lines which are so See also:close together (about 250 to the in.) as to be undistinguishable by the naked See also:eye. Beetling is a process by which a See also:peculiar linen-like appearance and a leathery feel or handle are imparted to cotton fabrics, the process being also employed for improving the appearance of linen goods. For the best class of See also:beetle finish, the pieces are first impregnated with See also:sago starch and the other necessary ingredients (softening, &c.) and are dried on cylinders. They are then damped on a water mangle, and beamed on to the heavy iron bowl of the beetling machine.

A beetling machine of the See also:

kind, with four sets of " fallers," is shown in fig. 3. The fallers are made of See also:beech See also:wood, are about 8 ft. See also:long, 51 in. deep and 4 in. wide, and are kept in their See also:vertical position by two pairs of See also:guide rails. Each faller is provided with a tappet or wooden peg driven in at one side, which engages with the See also:teeth or " wipers " of the revolving See also:shaft in the front of the machine. The effect of this mechanism is to lift the faller a distance of about 13 in. and then let it drop on to the cloth See also:wound on the See also:beam. Thislifting and dropping of the fallers on to the beam takes See also:place in rhythmical and rapid See also:succession. To ensure even treatment the beam turns slowly See also:round and also, has a to-and-fro See also:movement imparted to it. The treatment may last, according to the finish which it is desired to obtain, from one to sixty See also:hours. Beetling was originally used for linen goods, but to-See also:day is almost entirely applied to cotton for the production of so-called linenettes. Hot-pressing is used to a limited extent in order to obtain a soft finish on cotton goods, but as this operation is more used for See also:wool, it will be described below. Raising.—This operation, which was formerly only used for woollen goods (teasing), has come largely into use for cotton pieces, partly in consequence of the introduction of the See also:direct cotton See also:colours by which the cotton is dyed evenly throughout (see DYEING), and partly in consequence of new and improved machinery having been devised for the purpose. Starting with a plain bleached, dyed or printed fabric, the process consists in principle in raising or See also:drawing out the ends of individual fibres from the body of the cloth, so as to produce a See also:nap or soft woolly surface on the face.

This is effected by passing the fabric slowly round a large See also:

drum D, which is surrounded, as shown in the See also:diagram, (fig. 4), by a number of small cylinders or rollers, r, covered with steel See also:wire brushes or " See also:carding," such as is used in carding engines (see COTTON-See also:SPINNING MACHINERY). The rollers r, which are all driven by one and the same See also:belt (not shown in the figure), revolve at a high See also:rate of speed, and can be made to do so either in the same direction as that followed by the piece as it travels through the machine or in the opposite one. In addition to their revolving round their own axes, the raising rollers may be either kept stationary or may be moved round the drum D in either direction. In the more modern machines there are two sets of raising rollers, of which each alternate one is caused to revolve in the direction followed by the piece, while the other is made to revolve in the opposite direction. By passing through an arrangement of this kind several times, or through several such machines in succession, the ends of the fibres are gradually See also:drawn out to the desired extent. 10 R. After raising, the pieces are sheared (for better class See also:work) in order to produce greater regularity in the length of the nap. The raised See also:style of finishing is used chiefly for the production of uniformly See also:white or coloured flannelettes but is also used for such as are dyed in the See also:yarn, and to a limited extent for printed fabrics. Woollen and Worsted Picces.—Although both of these classes of material are made from wool, their treatment in finishing differs so materially that it is necessary to See also:deal with them separately. Unions or fabrics consisting of a cotton warp with a worsted weft are in See also:general treated like worsteds. In the finishing of woollen pieces the most important operation is that of milling, which consists in subjecting the pieces to mechanical friction, usually in an alkaline See also:medium (See also:soap or soap and soda) but sometimes in an acid (sulphuric acid) medium, in order to bring about felting and consequent " fulling" of the fabric.

This felting of the wool is due to the peculiar structure of the fibre, the scales of which all protrude in one direction, so that the individual fibres can slip past each other in one direction more readily than in the opposite one and thus become more and more interlocked as the milling proceeds. If the pieces contain burrs these are usually removed by a process known as " carbonizing," which generally, but not necessarily, precedes the milling. Their removal depends upon the fact that the burrs, which consist in the main of See also:

cellulose, are disintegrated at elevated temperatures by dilute See also:mineral acids. The pieces are run through sulphuric acid of from to 6° Tw., squeezed or hydro-extracted, and dried over cylinders and then in stoves. The acid is thus concentrated and attacks the burrs, which fall to dust, while leaving the wool intact. For the removal of the acid the fabric is first washed in water and then in weak soda. Carbonizing is also sometimes used for worsteds. Milling was formerly all done in milling or fulling See also:stocks (see fig. 5), in which the cloth saturated with a strong See also:solution of soap .i\\mr 7-a,, , I A \\\\XN\\\X\XXXI ra Vii... r woo. ~~rrrrrco~~rr~ra~a~~~ rrrwrwr•r~r~wyr~ (with or without other additions such as stale urine, potash, See also:fuller's See also:earth, &c.) is subjected to the See also:action of heavy wooden hammers, which are raised by the cams attached to the See also:wheel (E) on the revolving shaft, and fall with their own See also:weight on to the bundles of cloth. The shape of the See also:hammer-See also:head causes the cloth to turn slowly in the cavity in which the milling takes place. Occasionally, the cloth is taken out, straightened, washed if necessary, and then returned to the stocks to undergo further treatment, the process being continued until the material is uniformly shrunk or milled to the desired degree.

In the more modern forms of milling machines the principle adopted is to draw the pieces in rope form, saturated with soap solution and sewn together end to end so as to form an endless See also:

band, between two or more rollers, on leaving which they are forced down a closed trough ending in an See also:aperture the See also:size of which can be varied, but which in any case is sufficiently small to cause a certain amount of force to be necessary to push the pieces through. A machine of this kind is shown in fig. 6. It is evident that for coloured goods which have to be milled onlysuch colouring matters must be chosen for dyeing that are absolutely fast to soap. After the pieces have been milled down to the desired degree, they See also:present an uneven and undesirable appearance on the surface, the ends of many of the fibres which previously projected having been turned and thus become embedded in the body of the cloth. In order to bring these hairs to the surface again, the fabric is subjected to teas See also:ing or raising, an operation identical in principle with one which From Ganswindt, Technologie der Appretur. has already been Flo. 6.-Roller Milling Machine. noticed under the finishing of cotton. In place of the steel wire brushes it is the usual practice to employ teasels for the treatment of woollen goods. The See also:teasel (see fig. 7) is the dried head (See also:fruit) of a kind of See also:thistle (Dipsacusfuliorum), the horny See also:sharp spikes of which turn downwards at their extremity, and, while possessing the necessary sharpness and strength for raising the fibres, are not sufficiently rigid to cause any material damage to the cloth.

For raising, the teasels are fixed in rows on a large revolving drum, and the piece to be treated is drawn lengthways underneath the drum, being guided by rollers or rods so as to just See also:

touch the teasels as they sweep past. In the raising of woollen goods it is necessary that the pieces should be damp or moist while undergoing this treatment. After teasing, the pieces are stretched and dried. At this See also:stage they still have an irregular appearance, for although the raising has brought all the loose ends of the fibres to the surface, these vary considerably in length and thus give rise to an uneven nap. By the next operation of shearing or cropping, the long hairs are cut off and a See also:uniform surface is thus obtained. Shearing was in former times done by hand, by means of See also:shears, but is to-day universally effected by means of a cutting device which See also:works on the same principle as an ordinary See also:lawn-mower, in which a number of See also:spiral See also:blades set on the surface of a rapidly revolving roller pass continuously over a straight fixed blade underneath, the roller being set so that the spiral blades just touch the fixed blade. Before the piece comes to the shearing device the nap is raised by means of a rotary brush. Shearing may be effected either transversely, in which case the fixed blade is parallel to the warp, or longitudinally with the fixed blade parallel to the weft. In the first case, From Ganswindt, Technologie der Apprelur. the piece being stretched on 7.-Teasel used for Raising. a table, over which the cutter, carried on rails, travels from selvedge to selvedge. The length of the piece that can be shorn in one operation will naturally depend upon the length of the blade, but in any case the process is necessarily intermittent, many operations being required before the whole piece is shorn.

In the longitudinal shearing machines the process is continuous, the pieces passing from the beam in the stretched condition over the rotary brush, under the fixed blade, and then being again brushed before being beamed on the other side of the machine. Shearing once is generally insufficient, and for this See also:

reason many of the modern machines are constructed with duplicate arrangements so as to effect the shearing twice in the same operation. In the finishing of certain .woollen, goods the pieces, after having been milled, raised and sheared, go through these operations again in the same sequence. After these operations the goods are pressed either in the See also:hydraulic press or in the continuous press, and according to the character of the material and the finish desired may or may not be steamed under pressure, all of which operations are described below. New cloth, as it comes into the hands of the tailor, frequently shows an undesirable gloss . or sheen, which is removed before making up by a process known as shrinking, in which the material is simply damped or steamed. Worsteds and Unions.—The pieces are first singed by gas or hot See also:plate (see BLEACHING), and are then usually subjected to a process known as " crabbing," the object of which is to " set " the wool fibres. If this operation is omitted, especially in the case of unions, the fabric will. " See also:cockle," or assume an uneven surface on being wetted. In crabbing the pieces are drawn at full breadth and under as much tension as they will stand through boiling water, and are wound or beamed on to a roller under the pressure of a superposed heavy iron roller, the operation being conducted two or three times 'as required. From the crabbing machine the pieces are wound on to a perforated See also:shell or steel cylinder which is closed at one end. The open end is then attached to a steam See also:pipe, and steam, at a pressure of 30 to 45 lb, is allowed to enter until it makes its way through all the layers of cloth to the outside, when the steam is turned off and the whole allowed to cool. Since those layers of the cloth which are nearest the shell are acted upon for a longer See also:period than those at the outside, it is necessary to re-See also:wind and repeat the operation, the outside portions coming this See also:time nearest to the shell.

The principle of the process depends upon the fact that at elevated temperatures moist wool becomes plastic, and then easily assumes the shape imparted to it by the great tension under which the pieces are wound. On cooling the shape is retained, and since the temperature at which the pieces were steamed under tension exceeds any to which they are submitted in the subsequent processes, the " setting" of the fibres is permanent. After crabbing, the pieces are washed or " scoured " in soap either on the winch or at full width. In some cases the crabbing precedes the scouring. The goods are then dyed and finished. The nature of the finishing process will vary considerably according to the See also:

special character of the goods under treatment. Thus, for certain classes of goods See also:cold pressing is sufficient, while in other cases the pieces are steamed under pressure in a manner analogous to the treatment after crabbing (" decatizing "). The treatment in most See also:common use for worsteds and unions is hot pressing, which may be effected either in the hydraulic press or in the continuous press, but in most cases in the former. In pressing in the hydraulic press the pieces are folded down by hand on a table, a piece of press paper (thin hand-made cardboard with a glossed and extremely hard surface) being inserted between each See also:lap, After a certain number of laps, a steel or iron press plate is inserted, and the folding proceeds in this way until the See also:pile is sufficiently high, when it is placed in the press. The press being filled, the hydraulic See also:ram is set in See also:motion until the See also:reading on the See also:gauge shows that the desired amount of pressure has been obtained. The heating of the press plates was formerly done in ovens, previous to their insertion in the piece, but although this practice is still in See also:vogue in rare instances, the heating is now effected either by means'of steam which is caused to circulate through the hollow steel plates, or in the more modern forms of presses by means of an electriccurrent. After the pieces have thus been subjected to the combined effects of See also:heat and pressure for the desired length of time, they are allowed to cool in the press.

It is 'evident that portions of she pieces, viz. the folds, thus See also:

escape the finishing process, and for this reason it is necessary to repeat the process, the folds now being made to See also:lie in the middle of the press papers. The continuous press, which is used for certain classes of worsteds, but more especially for woollen goods, consists in principle of a polished steam-heated steel cylinder against which either one or two steam-heated chilled iron cheeks are set by means of levers and adjusting screws. The pieces to be-pressed are drawn slowly between the From Ganswindt,' Technologie der Appretur. cheeks and the bowl. A machine of the kind is shown in section in fig. 8. In working, the cheeks C, C, are pressed against the bowl B. The course followed by the cloth to be finished is shown by the dotted See also:line, the finished material being mechanically folded down on the See also:left-hand side of the machine. The pieces thus acquire a certain amount of finish which is, however, not comparable with that produced in the hydraulic press. Pile Fabrics, such as velvets, velveteens, corduroys, plushes, sealskins, &c., require a Special treatment in finishing, and great care must be taken in all operations to prevent the pile being crushed or otherwise damaged. Velveteens and corduroys are singed before boiling or bleaching. Velveteens dyed in See also:black or in dark shades are brushed with an oil See also:colour (e.g.

Prussian See also:

blue for blacks), and dried over-See also:night in a hot See also:stove in order to give them a characteristic See also:bloom. Regularity in the pile and gloss are obtained by shearing and brushing. Corduroys are stiffened at the back by the application of " See also:bone-size " (practically an impure form of See also:glue) in a machine similar to that used for back-starching. The face of the fabric is waxed with beeswax by passing the piece under a revolving drum, on the surface of which bars of this material are fixed parallel to the See also:axis. The bars just touch the surface of the fabric as it passes through the machine. The gloss is then obtained by brushing with circular brushes which run partly in the direction of the piece and partly diagonally. In the finishing of velvets, shearing and brushing are the most important operations. The same applies to sealskins and other long pile fabrics, but with these an additional operation, viz, that of " batting," is employed after dyeing and before shearing and brushing, which consists in beating the back of the stretched fabric with sticks in order to shake out the pile and cause it to stand erect. For the finishing of silk pieces the operations and machinery employed are similar in character to some of those used for cotton and worsteds. Most high-class silks require no further treatment other than simple damping and pressing after they leave the loom. Inferior qualities are frequently filled or back-filled with glue, See also:sugar, See also:gum tragacanth, dextrin, &c., after which they are dried, damped and given a See also:light calender finish. Moire or watered effects are produced by running two pieces face to face through a calender or by means of an embossing calender.

In the latter case the pattern repeats itself. For the production of silk See also:

crape the dyed (generally black) piece is impregnated with a solution of shellac in methylated spirit and dried. It is then " goffered," an operation which is practically identical with embossing (see above), and may either be done on an embossing calender or by means of heated brass plates in which the See also:design is engraved to the desired See also:depth and pattern. The measuring, wrapping, doubling, folding, &c., of piece goods previous to making up are done in the works by specially constructed machinery. Finishing of Yarn.—The finishing of yarn is not nearly so important as the finishing of textiles in the piece, and it will suffice to draw See also:attention to the main operations. Cotton yarns are frequently " gassed," i.e. drawn through a gas See also:flame, in order to See also:burn or singe off the projecting fibres and thus to produce a clean See also:thread which is required for the manufacture of certain classes of fabrics. The most important finishing process for cotton yarn is " mercerizing " (q.v.), by means of which a permanent silk-like gloss is obtained. The " polishing " of cotton yarn, by means of which a highly glazed product, similar in appearance to horsehair, is obtained, is effected by impregnating the yarn with a paste consisting essentially of starch, beeswax or See also:paraffin wait and soap, and then subjecting the damp material to the action of revolving brushes until dry. Woollen yarn is not subjected to any treatment, but worsted yarns (especially twofold) have to be " set " before scouring and dyeing in order to prevent See also:curling. This is effected by stretching the yarn tight on a frame, which is immersed in boiling water and then allowing it to cool in this condition. A peculiar silk-like gloss and feel is sometimes imparted to yarns made from lustre wool by a treatment with a weak solution of See also:chlorine (bleaching See also:powder and hydrochloric acid) followed by a treatment with soap. Worsted and See also:mohair yarns intended for the manufacture of braids are singed by gas, a process technically known as " Genapping." Silk yarn is subjected to various mechanical processes before See also:weaving.

The most important of these are stretching, shaking, lustreing .nd glossing. Stretching and shaking are simple operations the nature of which is sufficiently indicated by their names, and by these means the hanks are stretched to their original length and straightened out by hand or on a specially devised machine. In lustreing, the yarn is stretched slightly beyond its original length between two polished revolving cylinders (one of which is steam heated) contained in a box or See also:

chest into which steam is admitted. In glossing, the yarn is See also:twisted tight, first in one direction and then in the other, on a machine, this alternating action being continued until the maximum gloss is obtained. The so-called " scrooping " process, which gives to silk a peculiar feel and causes it to crackle or crunch when compressed by the hand, is a very simple operation, and consists in treating the yarn after dyeing in a See also:bath of dilute acid (acetic, tartaric or sulphuric) and then drying without washing. Heavily weighted black silks are passed after dyeing through an emulsion of See also:olive oil in soap and dried without washing, in order to give additional lustre to the material or rather to restore some of the lustre which has been lost in weighting. (E.

End of Article: FINISHING

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