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See also:POUND (2)—(a) a measure of See also:weight; (b) an See also:English See also:money of See also:account. (a) The English See also:standard unit of weight is the See also:avoirdupois pound of 7000 grains. The earliest weight in the English See also:system was the Saxon pound, subsequently known as the See also:Tower pound, from the old See also:mint pound kept in the Tower of See also:London. The Tower pound weighed 5400 grains and this weight of See also:silver was coined into 240 pence or 20 shillings, hence pound in sense (2) (a pound weight of silver). The pound See also:troy, probably introduced from See also:France, was in use as See also:early as 1415 and was adopted as the legal standard for See also:gold and silver in 1527. The See also:act which abolished the Tower pound (18 See also:Hen. VIII.: the " pounde Troye which exceedeth the pounde Tower in weight iii quarters of the oz.") substituted a pound of 5760 grains, at which the pound troy still remains. There was in use together with the pound troy,. the See also:merchant's pound, weighing 6750 grains, which was established about 1270 for all commodities except gold, silver and medicines, but it was generally superseded by the pound avoirdupois about 1330. There was also in use for a See also:short See also:- TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
- TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
- TIME, STANDARD
time another merchant's pound, introduced from France and See also:Germany; this pound weighed 7200 grains. The pound avoirdupois has remained in use continuously since the 14th See also:century, although it may have varied slightly at different periods—the Elizabethan standard was probably 7002 grains. The standard pound troy, placed together with the standard yard in the custody of the clerk of the See also:House of See also:Commons by a See also:resolution of the House of the 2nd of See also:June 1758, was destroyed at , the burning of the houses of See also:parliament in 1834. In 1838 a See also:commission was appointed to consider the restoration of the See also:standards, and in consequence of their See also:report in 1841 the pound avoirdupois of 7000 grains was substituted for the pound troy as the standard. A new standard pound avoirdupois was made under the direction of a See also:committee appointed in 1834 (which reported in 1854), by comparison with authenticated copies of the See also:original standard (see Phil. Trans. 1856). This standard pound was legalized by an act of 1855 (18 & 1g Vict. c. 72). The standard avoirdupois pound is made of See also:platinum, in the See also:form of a See also:cylinder nearly 1.35 in. high and 1.15 in. in See also:diameter. It has a groove or channel See also:round it to enable it to be lifted by means of an See also:ivory See also:fork (for See also:illustration see WEIGHTS AND See also:MEASURES) and is marked " P.S. 1844. T lb." P.S. meaning See also:Parliamentary Standard. It is preserved at the Standards See also:- OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")
Office, in the custody of the See also:Board of See also:Trade. Copies were also deposited at the Houses of Parliament, the Royal Mint, the Royal See also:Observatory and with the Royal Society.
See the Reports of the Standards Commission (6 parts, 1868-1873), especially 3rd report (on the abolition of troy weight) and 5th report (on the business of the Standards Dept. and the See also:condition of the See also:official standards and apparatus; description of the reverification of the various official standards, with diagrams).
(b) The English monetary unit is the pound; it was originally a pound weight of silver (hence written for See also:libra, See also:Lat. pound weight), coined into twenty shillings, and is now represented by the gold See also:sovereign (q.v.). The pound Scots was at one time of the same value as the English pound, but through See also:gradual debasement of the coinage was reduced at the See also:accession of See also:- JAMES
- JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
- JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
- JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
- JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
- JAMES, EPISTLE OF
- JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
- JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
- JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
- JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
- JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
- JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)
James I. to about one-twelfth of the value of the English pound, and was divided into twenty shillings, each about the value of an English See also:penny. The See also:Egyptian pound, written LE, is a gold See also:coin of Too piastres, and was made the monetary unit of the See also:country by a See also:decree of the 14th of See also:November 1885. Its weight is 8.544 grammes of gold 0.875 See also:fine and its value in English standard gold is 1, os. 6+d. The See also:Turkish pound is written T. The Turkish monetary system is dealt with at length under See also:TURKEY: Monetary System.
Valuable See also:information from the See also:historical point of view will be found in the Reports of the Standards Commission quoted above, and in H. W. Chisholm's On the See also:Science of Weighing and Measuring (1877) and his Seventh See also:Annual Report as See also:warden of the standards;
R. Ruding, See also:Annals of the Coinage (1819) and H. J.
Chaney, Our See See also:Sandrart, Acad. See also:nob. See also:art. Pict.; Lettres de See also:Nicolas Poussin
Weights and Measures (1897). (T. A. I.) POUSSIN, NICOLAS (1594–1665), See also:French painter, was See also:born at See also:Les Andelys (See also:Eure) in June 1594. Early sketches attracted the See also:notice of Quentin Varin, a See also:local painter, whose See also:- PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)
pupil Poussin became, till he went to See also:Paris, where he entered the studio of See also:Ferdinand Elle, a See also:Fleming, and then of the Lorrainer L'Allemand. He found French art in a See also:stage of transition: the old See also:apprenticeship system was disturbed, and the academical See also:schools destined to supplant it were not yet established; but, having met See also:Courtois the mathematician, Poussin was fired by the study of his collection of engravings after See also:Italian masters. After two abortive attempts to reach See also:Rome, he See also:fell in with the See also:chevalier See also:Marini at See also:Lyons. Marini employed him on illustrations to his poems, took him into his See also:household, and in 1624 enabled Poussin (who had been detained by commissions in Lyons and Paris) to rejoin him at Rome. There, his See also:patron having died, Poussin fell into See also:great See also:distress. Falling See also:ill he was received into the house of his compatriot Dughet and nursed by his daughter See also:Anna Maria to whom in 1629, Poussin was married. Among his first patrons were See also:Cardinal See also:Barberini, for whom was painted the " See also:Death of Germanicus " (Barberini See also:Palace); Cardinal Omodei, for whom he produced, in 163o, the " Triumphs of See also:Flora " (Louvre); Cardinal de See also:Richelieu, who commissioned a Bacchanal (Louvre) ; Vicenzo See also:Giustiniani, for whom was executed the " See also:Massacre of the Innocents," of which there is a first See also:sketch in the See also:British Museum; Cassiano dal Pozzo, who became the owner of the first See also:series of the " Seven Sacraments " (Belvoir See also:Castle); and Fieart de Chanteloup, with whom in 164o Poussin, at the See also:call of Sublet de Noyers, returned to France. See also:- LOUIS
- LOUIS (804–876)
- LOUIS (893–911)
- LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
- LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian
Louis XIII. conferred on him I the See also:title of " first painter in See also:ordinary," and in two years at Paris he produced several pictures for the royal chapels (the " Last Supper," painted for See also:Versailles, now in the Louvre) and eight cartoons for the Gobelins, the series of the " Labours of See also:Hercules " for the Louvre, the " See also:Triumph of Truth " for Cardinal Richelieu (Louvre), and much See also:minor See also:work. In 1643, disgusted by the intrigues of See also:Simon See also:Vouet, Feuquieres and the architect See also:Lemercier, Poussin withdrew to Rome. There, in 1648, he finished for De Chanteloup the second series of the " Seven Sacraments " (See also:Bridgewater See also:Gallery), and also his See also:noble landscape with See also:Diogenes throwing away his See also:Scoop (Louvre); in 1649 he painted the " See also:Vision of St See also:Paul " (Louvre) for the comic poet See also:Scarron, and in 1651 the " See also:Holy See also:Family " (Louvre) for the See also:duke of Crequi. See also:Year by year he continued to produce an enormous variety of See also:works, many of which are included in the See also:list given by Felibien. He died on the 19th of November 1665 and was buried in the See also:- CHURCH
- CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
- CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
- CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
- CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
- CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)
church of St See also:- LAWRENCE
- LAWRENCE (LAURENTIUS, LORENZO), ST
- LAWRENCE, AMOS (1786—1852)
- LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (1814–1886)
- LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED (1827–1876)
- LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD MAIR LAWRENCE, 1ST BARON (1811-1879)
- LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY (1806–1857)
- LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS (1769–1830)
- LAWRENCE, STRINGER (1697–1775)
Lawrence in See also:Lucina, his wife having predeceased him.
The finest collection of Poussin's paintings as well as of his drawings is possessed by the Louvre; but, besides the pictures in the See also:National Gallery and at See also:Dulwich, See also:England possesses several of his most considerable works: The " Triumph of See also:Pan " is at Baisildon (See also:Berkshire), and his great allegorical See also:painting of the " Arts " at Knowsley. At Rome, in the See also:Colonna and Valentini Palaces, are notable works by him, and one of the private apartments of See also:Prince See also:Doria is decorated by a great series of landscapes in distemper. Through-out his See also:life he stood aloof from the popular See also:movement of his native school. French art in his See also:day was purely decorative, but in Poussin we find a survival of the impulses of the See also:Renaissance coupled with conscious reference -to classic work as the standard of excellence. In See also:general we see his paintings at a great disadvantage, for the See also:colour, even of the best preserved, has changed in parts, so that the keeping is disturbed; and the noble construction of his designs can be better seen in engravings than in the original. Amongst the many who have reproduced his works See also:Audran, Claudine Stella, Picart and Pesne are the most successful.
Poussin See also:left no See also:children, but he adopted as his son Gaspar Dughet (Gasparo Duche), his wife's See also:brother, who took the name of Poussin. GASPAR POUSSIN (1613–1675) devoted himself to landscape painting and rendered admirably the severer beauties of the See also:Roman Campagna; a noteworthy series of works in See also:tempera representing various sites near Rome is to be seen in the Colonna Palace; but one of his finest easel-pictures, the " See also:Sacrifice of See also:Abraham," formerly the See also:property of the Colonna, is now, with other works by the same painter, in the National Gallery, London. The frescoes executed by Gaspar Poussin in S. Martino di Monti are in a See also:bad See also:state of preservation. The Louvre does not possess a single work by his See also:hand. Gaspar died at Rome on the 27th of May 1675.
(Paris, 1824) ; Felibien, Entretiens ; See also:Gault de St Germain, See also:Vie de Nicolas Poussin (18o6); D'Argenville, Abrege de la vie See also:des peintres; Bouchitte, Poussin et son suvre (1858) ; See also:Emilia F. S. See also:Pattison (See also:Lady See also:Dilke), Documents inedits, Le Poussin, in L'Art (1882).
End of Article: POUND (2)—(a)
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