ANNA , of the ground. They can be made, too, to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

Great variety of design is admissible in the conservatory, but it ought always to be adapted to the See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

The upper sashes may also be made to lift, and are in many respects more convenient to operate. In the centre is a two-tier See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

It will be seen (fig. 4) that along the ridge of the roof a raised portion or See also:

• LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. lanterne from Lat. lanterna or laterna, supposed to be from Gr. Aa urritp, a torch or lamp, Aaµaew, to shine, cf. " lamp "; the 16th- and 17th-century form " lanthorn " is due to a mistaken derivation from " horn," as a m

The Vinery is a house devoted to the culture of the See also:

• GRAPE

(3) The span-roofed (fig. 7). the most elegant and ornamental form, is especially adapted for isolated positions; indeed, no other form affords so much roof space for the development of the vines. The amount of light admitted being very great, these houses See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

Two or three hot-water pipes are placed near the front wall. The back wall is usually planted with See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

The trees should be planted inside and trained up towards the ridge on a trellis about a foot from the glass, the walls being arched to permit the egress of the roots. A trellis path should run along the centre, and movable pieces of trellis should be provided to prevent trampling on the See also:

• SOIL

In these cases the first supply of heat is derived from the hot bed made up within the See also:

• PIT (O. E. pytt, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfutze, &c., all ultimately adaptations of Lat. puteus, well, formed from root pu-, to cleanse, whence gurus, clean, pure)

Pits and Frames.—These are used both for the summer growth and winter See also:

• PROTECTION

A convenient size is 6 ft. wide, 24 in. high at the back and 15 in front; and they are usually 12 ft. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

The internal arrangement of a lean-to mushroom house is shown in fig. 13. The length may vary from 30 ft. to 6o ft.; a convenient width is to ft., which admits of a 32 ft. central path, and beds 3 ft. wide on each side. The shelves should be of slate a, a, supported by iron uprights b, b, each half having a front ledge of bricks set on edge in cement c, c. The slabs of slate forming the shelves should not be too closely fitted, as a small See also:

• INTERVAL

Some of these are built in the form of a See also:

• BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823–1884)
• BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794–1855)
• BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (184o— )

Conical boilers are more ex-pensive to set by See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

It is important that the ventilation should be as efficient as practicable, especially where See also:

• COKE (a northern English word, possibly connected with " colk," core)
• COKE, SIR EDWARD (1552-1634)
• COKE, SIR JOHN (1563-1644)
• COKE, THOMAS (1747-1814)

See also:

• MECHANICAL

6 in. apart. The shelves are of deal strips, 2 or 3 in. wide, laid about r in. apart for ventilation. These are being superseded, however, by sliding-out trays of convenient lengths and about 9 in. deep, working on fixed framework. By this means the storage accommodation is nearly doubled and the fruit is more easily manipulated. The central gangway is about 3 ft. 6 in. wide. In the latter a central See also:

• EXHIBITION

The water is heated by a furnace, and is conveyed from the boiler into the houses by a main or " flow " pipe, connected by means of syphon branches with as many pipes as it is intended to serve. When cooled it is returned to the boiler by another main or " return " pipe. Heat is regulated in the structures by means of valves on the various See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

In view of the fact that air expands, becomes lighter and rises, under the influence of heat, the pipes should be set near the floor. If intended to raise the temperature of the structure, they should be set on iron or brick supports just clear of walls, See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

In districts where heather and gritty soil predominate, the peat soil is poor and unprofitable, but selections from both the heathy and the richer peat soils, collected with See also:

• JUDGMENT

The following are organic manures: See also:

• FARM

Quicklime should not be used, as it dispels the greater part of the ammonia. When prepared by drying and mixing with various substances, night-soil is sold as desiccated night-soil or native See also:

• GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian huanu, dung)

Both are remarkable for the quantity of nitrates and phosphates they contain. Pigeon dung approaches guano in its power as manure. It should be laid up in ridges of good loamy soil in alternate layers,to form a compost, which becomes a valuable stimulant for any very choice subjects if cautiously used. The dung of the domestic See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

When dissolved in water they used the turfy ingredients of composts should lie together in a heap only long enough for the roots of the herbage to See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Somewhat larger seeds sown indoors may be covered to the depth of one-eighth of one-See also:

• FOURTH

After they have ripened in connexion with the parent bulb, the offsets are taken off, stored in appropriate places, and at the proper season planted out in nursery beds. 3. By Tubers.—The tuber is a fleshy underground stem, furnished with eyes which are either visible, as in the See also:

• POTATO
• POTATO (Solanum tuberosum)

The most commonly used nitrogenous manures are nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash and sulphate of. ammonia, the prices of which are constantly fluctuating. Potash and soda are also valuable inorganic manures in the form of See also:

• CARBONATES

It does not supply the place of organic manures, but only renders that which is ptesent available for the nourishment of the plants. It also improves the texture of See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

The ash may be used as manure. See also:

• SOOT (0. Eng. sot, cf. Icel. sot, Dan. sod; possibly from root sed, to sit)

For ordinary purposes labels of wood of various sizes (sold in bundles) are the most convenient. These should be wiped with a little white paint or See also:

• LINSEED

14). When the number of roots is limited, the tops should be shortened, and some care in watering and mulching should be bestowed on the plant if it is of value. 6. By Runners.—The young See also:

• STRING

For propagation the buibiferous portion is pegged down on the surface of a pot of suitable soil; if kept close in a moist atmosphere, the little buds will soon strike root and form independent plants. In Cystopteris the buds are See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

In general, each shoot makes, one layer, but in plants like the Wistaria or See also:

• CLEMATIS

The See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

Some cold mastics become very pliable with the warmth of the hands. They are best applied with a piece of flat wood; or very liquid waxes may be applied with a See also:

• BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is h
• BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855– )

Here the graft is fixed to the side of the stock, which is planted or potted close to the plant to be worked. The branches are applied to the stock while yet attached to the parent tree, and remain so until See also:

• UNITED

19), paeonies, and Wistarias maybe of See also:

• DAHLIA

The operator should be provided with a sharp budding See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

Standard trees, however, are budded on a sturdy young shoot close to the top. In either case the stocks should have been carefully planted at least the previous See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

Then as to position, certain cuttings grow readily enough if planted outdoors in the open soil, some preferring shade, others See also:

• SUNSHINE

Such difficult plants as heaths are reared in silver sand, a stratum of which ' is placed over the sandy peat soil in a specially prepared cutting pot, and thus the cuttings, though rooting in the sand under a bell-glass, find at once on the' emission of roots See also:

• CON

This class of subjects may also be fixed flat on the surface of the cutting pot, by means of little pegs or hooks, the main ribs being cut across at intervals, and from these points roots, - and eventually young tubers, will be produced (fig. 2 14. By Root Cuttings.—Some !. plants which are not easily increased 2 by other means propagate readily from root cuttings. Amongst the indoor plants which may be so treated, See also:

• BOUVARDIA

The root cuttings of rose-stocks are prepared and treated in a similar way. 15. By Cuttings of Single Eyes.—This mode of propagation is by cutting the ripened young branches into short lengths, each containing one well-matured bud or eye, with a short portion of the stem above and below. It is a common mode of propagating vines, the eyes being in this case cut from the ripened leafless wood. The eyes (fig. 25, a) are planted just below the surface in pots of light soil, which are placed in a hot bed or propagating pit, and in due time each pushes up a young shoot which forms the future stem, while from about its base the young roots are produced (fig. 25, b) which convert it into an independent plant. In the case of plants with persistent leaves, the stem may be cut through just above and below the bud, retaining the leaf which is left on the cutting, the old wood and eye being placed beneath the soil and the leaf left ex-posed. In this way the See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

The soil between the trench and the stem is to be reduced as far as may seem necessary or practicable by means of a digging See also:

• FORK (Lat. furca)

The excavation will now be filled up about two-thirds perhaps; and if so the tree may have a thorough good watering, sufficient to settle the soil closely about its roots. After twenty-four See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

When seedlings of vigorous plants have to be " pricked out," a dibble or dibber is the best implement to be used. The ground being prepared and, if necessary, enriched, and the surface made fine and smooth, a hole is made with the dibble deep enough and large enough to receive the roots of the seedling plants without doubling them up, and the hole is filled in by working the soil close to the plant with the point of the dibble. The pricking out of seedlings in pots in the propagating pit is effected in a similar way. The plants; indeed, often require to be removed and set from z in. to r in. apart before they have become sufficiently developed to admit of being handled with any degree of facility, and for these a pointed stick of convenient size is used as a dibble. In delicate cases, such as seedling gloxinias and begonias, it is best to lift the little seedling on the end of a flattish pointed stick, often cleft at the apex, pressing this into the new soil where the plant is to be placed, and liberating it and closing the earth about it by the aid of a similar stick held in the other hand. Potting and Repotting.—Garden pots are made with a comparatively large hole in the bottom, and those of the largest size have also holes at the side near the bottom; these openings are to prevent the soil becoming saturated or soured with superabundant water. To prepare the pot for the plant, a broadish piece of potsherd, called a " crock," is placed over the large hole, and if there be side holes they also are covered. The bottom crock is made from a piece of a broken garden pot, and is laid with the con-vex side upwards; then comes a layer of irregular pieces of crock of various sizes, about i in. deep in a 5-in. pot, 2 in. in an 11-in. or 12-in. pot, &c. The mode of crocking a pot is shown in fig. 26. A few of the coarser lumps from the outer showing Crocks. edge of the heap of potting soil are spread over the crocks. be filled in gradually with the prepared compost, which is. from The same end, that of keeping the finer particles of the soil from mixing with the drainage crocks, may be attained by shaking in a little clean moss.

A handful or two of the soil is then put in, and on this the plant with its roots spread out is to be set, a trifle higher than the plant should stand in the pot when finished off; more soil is to be added, and the whole pressed firmly with the fingers, the base of the stem being just below the pot-rim, and the surface being smoothed off so as to slope a little outwards. When finished off, the pots should be watered well, to settle the soil; but they should stand till the water has well drained away, since, if they are moved about while the fresh soil is very wet, there will be a See also:

• RISK

The plants under these conditions often require to be supported by wooden pegs or sticks. Some of the species grow better when altogether taken out of the soil and fixed to blocks of wood, but in this case they require a little coaxing with moss about the roots until they get established. In other cases they are planted in open baskets of wood or wire, using the porous peat and sphagnum compost. Both blocks and baskets are usually suspended from the roof of the house, See also:

• HANGING

In ordinary cases the potting soil should be just so far removed from dryness that when a handful is gently pressed it may hang together, but may lose its cohesion when dropped. When plants are required to stand in ornamental See also:

• CHINA

This applies even more strongly to conservatory borders and to forcing-houses than to the outside fruit-tree borders, because from these the natural rain supply is in most cases more distinctly cut off. In the case of forcing-houses, the water should be heated before being applied to the borders containing the roots of the trees. In the watering of pot plants the utmost care is requisite if the plant be a shy-growing or valuable one, and yet it is almost impossible to give any intelligible instruction for performing the operation. The roots should never be suffered either to get thoroughly dry or to get sodden with excess of water. An See also:

• ADEPT (if used as a substantive pronounced adept, if as an adjective adept; from Lat. adeptus, one who has Attained)

Pruning.—Pruning is a very important operation in the fruit garden, its object being twofold—(r) to give form to the tree, and (2) to induce the free production of flower buds as the precursors of a plentiful crop of fruit. To form a standard tree, either the stock is allowed to grow up with a straight stem, by cutting away all side branches up to the height required, say about 6 ft., the scion or bud being worked at that point, and the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

27, reduced from M. Hardy's excellent work, See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

Near the base of the stem are two prominent buds, which would produce two vigorous shoots, but these would be too near the ground, and the buds should therefore be suppressed; but, to strengthen the lower part, the weaker buds just above and below the lowest branch should be forced into growth, by making a transverse incision close above each. Fig. 28, b, shows what a similar tree would be at the end of the third year's growth. In order to bring a young tree into the See also:

• CORDON (a French derivative of corde, cord)

The method of pruning formerly adopted for the formation of a fan-shaped tree was to head down the maiden plant to about two eyes, so placed as to yield a young shoot on each side (fig. 29), the supernumerary shoots being rubbed off while quite young, and the reserved shoots trained against the wall shaped Tree. during the summer so as to get them well matured. The next year they were cut back again; often nearly to the base, in order that the lower pair of these shoots might each produce two well-placed young shoots, and the upper pair three young shoots. The tree would thus consist of ten shoots, to be laid out at regular distances, and then if closely cut the frame-work of the tree would be as in fig. 30. These main shoots were not again to be shortened back, but from each of them three young shoots were to be selected and trained in two, on the upper side, one near the base, and the other half way up, and one on the lower side placed about midway between these two; these with the leading shoot, which was also to be nailed in, made four branches of the current year from each of the ten main branches, and the form of the tree would therefore be that of fig. 31. The other young shoots produced were pinched off while quite young, to throw all the strength of the tree into those which were to form ..~. its basis, and to secure abundant light and air. In after years the leading shoot was not to be cut back, but all the lateral shoots were to be shortened, and from these year by year other shoots were to be selected to fill up the area occupied by the tree. In pruning for a horizontal tree the young maiden tree has to be headed back nearly to its base, and from the young shoots three are to be selected, the two best-placed lower ones to form an opposite or nearly opposite pair of main branches, and the best-placed upper one to continue the erect stem (fig. 32).

This upper shoot is at the next winter pruning to be cut down to within about a foot of the point whence it sprung, and its buds rubbed off except the upper one for a See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

Cordons of apples and pears have to be similarly treated, but cordons of peaches and nectarines are pruned so as to provide the necessary annual succession of young bearing wood. third year. Horizontally trained Tree. third year. Fruit trees trained as espaliers, fans or cordons against walls, trellises or fences, are not only pruned carefully in the winter but must be also pruned during the early summer months. Many of the smaller, useless shoots are rubbed out altogether; the best are allowed to grow perhaps a foot or more in length, and then either have the tips pinched out with the finger and thumb, or the ends may be cracked or broken, and allowed to hang down, but are not detached completely. This is called summer pruning, and is an important operation requiring knowledge on the part of the gardener to perform properly. Shoots of peaches, nectarines and morello cherries are "laid in," that is, placed in between fruiting shoots where there is the space to be ripened for next year's crop. Summer Pruning should be performed while the shoots are yet young and succulent, so that they may in most cases be nipped off with the thumb-See also:

• NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. ovu, Sans. nakhas)

35, a). One or two may push out a late summer growth, b; this will serve as a vent for the vigour of the tree, and if the lowermost only go to the formation of a fruit spur, the object will have been gained. They are cut to the last dormant bud in winter. But summer pruning has been much extended since the introduction of restricted growth and the use of dwarfing stocks. Orchard-house trees, and also pyramidal and bush trees of apples, pears and plums, are mainly fashioned by summer pruning; in fact, the less the knife is used upon them, except in the necessary cutting of the roots in potted trees, the better. In the case of orchard-house plants no shoots are suffered to lengthen out, except as occasionally wanted to fill up a See also:

• GAP

Fig 36, b and c, are examples of the former, and d, e, f of the latter. In fact there is only one right way to cut a shoot and that is as shown at a. The Pruning of flowering plants is generally a much lighter `matter than the pruning of fruit trees. If a young seedling or cutting of any soft-wooded plant is to be bushy, it must haveits top nipped out by the thumb-nail or pruning-See also:

• SCISSORS

The See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

The root-pruning of pot-plants is necessary in the case of many soft-wooded subjects which are grown on year after year—pelargoniums and fuchsias, for example. After the close pruning of the branches to which they are annually subjected, and when the young shoots have shot forth an inch or two in length, they are turned out of their pots and have the old soil shaken away from their roots, the longest of which, to the extent of about half the existing quantity, are then cut clean away, and the plants repotted into small pots. This permits the growing plant to be fed with rich fresh soil, without having been necessarily transferred to pots of unwieldy size by the time the flowering stage is reached. Ringing.—One of the expedients for inducing a state of fruit-fulness in trees is the ringing of the branches or stem, that is, removing a narrow See also:

• ANNULAR, ANNULATE

Thus a shoot will grow more vigorously whilst waving in the air than when nailed close to the wall; consequently a weak shoot should be left free, whilst its stronger antagonist should be restrained; and a luxuriant shoot may be retarded for some time by having its tender extremity pinched off to allow a weaker shoot to overtake it. By the prudent use of the knife, fruit trees may be readily trained into the forms indicated below, which are amongst the best out of the many which have been devised. The training of standard and bush trees in the open ground has been already referred to under the section Pruning. When the growth of pyramids is completed, the outline is something like that of fig. 39, and very See also:

• PRETTY

, -. . - . 1- the branches depart at right angles, at intervals of about a foot. Horizontal training is best adapted to the apple and the pear; and for the more twiggy growing slender varieties, the forms shown in fig. 42 have been recommended. In these the horizontal branches are placed wider, 18 to 20 in. apart, and the smaller shoots are trained between them, either on both sides, as at a, or deflexed from the lower side, as at b. The latter is an excellent method of reclaiming neglected trees. Every alternate i ,e rr Sri ~. ~` branch should be taken away, and the spurs cut off, after which the young shoots are trained in, and soon produce good fruit. In Fan Training (fig. 43) there is no leading stem, but the branches spring from the base and are arranged somewhat like the ribs of a fan. This mode of training is commonly adopted for the peach, nectarine, apricot and morello cherry, to which Distribution.

a it is best adapted. Though sometimes adopted, it is not so well suited as the horizontal form for apples and pears, because, when the branches reach the top of the wall, where they must be cut short, a hedge of young shoots is inevitable. A modification of the fan shape (fig. 44) is sometimes adopted for stone fruits, such as the plum and apricot. In this the object is to establish a number of See also:

• MOTHER

Care should be taken that the ties or fastenings do not eventually cut into the bark as the branches swell with increased age. When shreds and nails are used, short thick wire nails and " medicated shreds " are the best; the ordinary See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

The object is to fill up the See also:

• BLANK (from the Fr. blanc, white)

For the growth of flowers generally, and for that of all fruits, every See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

(See Retardation above.) V. Flowers. Flower Garden and See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

The selection of suitable alpines, perennials and shrubs and trees also necessitates considerable knowledge on the part of the gardener. A separate compartment laid out on some regular plan is often set apart for roses, under the name of the " Rosery." A moist or rather a shady border, or a section of the pleasure ground supplied with See also:

• BOG (from Ir. and Gael. bogach, bog, soft)

47.—Turf-Beater. with grass-seeds, and equally effective, though the sward takes much longer to thicken. It is of the utmost importance that a good selection of See also:

• GRASSES