Online Encyclopedia
Search over 40,000 articles from the original, classic Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Edition.
LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF
Online EncyclopediaEncyclopedia Home :: LEO-LOB
del.icio.us it!
|
See also:LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF . The ceremonial use of lights in the See also:Christian See also: 22, §§ 2 and 3) tells of a statue of See also:Hermes Agoraios, in the See also:market-place of Pharae in See also:Achaea,
" 0 Fire, See also:thou knowest all things ! " See A. Bourquin, " Brahma-See also:karma, ou rites sacres See also:des Brahmans," in the Annales du Musee See also:Guimet (See also:Paris, 1884, t. vii.).before which lamps were lighted. Among the Romans lighted candles and lamps formed part of the cult of the domestic tutelary deities; on all festivals doors were garlanded and lamps lighted (See also:Juvenal, Sat. xii. 92; See also:Tertullian, Apol. See also:xxxv.). In the cult of See also:Isis lamps were lighted by day. In the See also:ordinary temples were candelabra, e.g. that in the temple of See also:Apollo Palatinus at Rome, originally taken by See also: It was of See also:Asiatic origin, traces of it having been observed in See also:Phoenicia and in the Punic colonies, but not in See also:Egypt or Greece. In See also:Europe it was confined to the countries under the domination of Rome.2
In See also:Christianity, from the very first, fire and light are conceived as symbols, if not as visible manifestations, of the divine nature and the divine presence. See also:Christ is " the true Light " (See also: the first two centuries. It is recorded, indeed (Acts xx. 7, 8), that on the occasion of St Paul's See also:preaching at See also:Alexandria in Troas " there were many lights in the upper chamber "; but this was at night. and the most that can be hazarded is that a specially large number were lighted as a festive See also:illumination, as in See also:modern Church festivals (Martigny, See also:Diet. des antigi. Chret.). As to a purely ceremonial use, such early evidence as exists is all the other way. A single See also:sentence of Tertullian (Apol. xxxv.) sufficiently illuminates Christian practice during the end See also:century. " On days of rejoicing," he says, " we do not shade our See also:door-posts with laurels nor encroach upon the day-light with lamps " (See also:die laeto non laurels postes obumbramus nec lucernis diem infringimus). Lactantius, See also:writing early in the 4th century, is even more sarcastic in his references to the See also:heathen practice. " They kindle lights," he says, " as though to one who is in darkness. Can he be thought sane who offers the light of lamps and candles to the Author and Giver of all light?" (Div. Inst. vi. de vero cultu, cap. 2, in See also:Migne, Pair. See also:lat. vi. 637).' This is primarily an attack on votive lights, and does not necessarily exclude their ceremonial use in other ways. There is, indeed, evidence that they were so used before Lactantius wrote. The 34th See also:canon of the See also:synod of See also:Elvira (305), which was contemporary with him, forbade candles to be lighted in cemeteries during the daytime, which points to an established custom as well as to an objection to it; and in the See also:Roman catacombs lamps have been found of the end and 3rd centuries which seem to have 2 J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. " See also:Lucerne." 3 This is quoted with approval by See also:Bishop See also:jewel in the See also:homily Against Peril of See also:Idolatry (see below). Nos:-Christian religions. Tertulllaa and Laotantius, been ceremonial or symbolical.' Again, according to the Ada of St See also:Cyprian (d. 258), his See also:body was See also:borne to the See also:grave prae- lucentibus cereis, and See also:Prudentius, in his hymn on the 2nd and martyrdom of St See also:Lawrence (Peristeph. ii. 71, in Migne, 3rd auiea. Patr. lat. Ix. 300), says that in the See also:time of St cen See also:Laurentius, i.e. the See also:middle of the 3rd century, candles stood in the churches of Rome on golden candelabra. The See also:gift, mentioned by See also:Anastasius (in Sylv.), made by See also:Constantine to the Vatican See also:basilica, of a pharum of gold, garnished with 500 dolphins each holding a lamp, to See also:burn before St See also:Peter's See also:tomb, points also to a custom well established before Christianity became the See also:state religion. Whatever previous custom may have been—and for the earliest ages it is difficult to determine absolutely owing to the fact that the Christians held their services at night—by the See also:close of the 4th century the ceremonial use of lights had become firmly and universally established in the Church. This is clear, to pass by much other evidence, from the controversy of St See also:Jerome with See also:Vigilantius. Vigilantius, a See also:presbyter of See also:Barcelona, still occupied the position of Tertullian and Lactantius in this See also:matter. " We see," he wrote, " a rite See also:peculiar to the pagans introduced into the churches on pretext of religion, and, while the See also:sun is still shining, a See also:mass of See also:wax tapers lighted. . . A great See also:honour to the blessed martyrs, whom they think to illustrate with contemptible little candles (de silissimis cereolis) 1 " Jerome, the most influential theologian of the day, took up the cudgels against Vigilantius (he " ought to be called Dormitantius "), who, in spite of his fatherly admonition, had dared again " to open his foul mouth and send forth a filthy stink against the See also:relics of the holy martyrs " (Hier. Ep. cix. al. 53—ad Ripuarium Presbyt., in Migne, Patr. lat. p. 906). If candles are lit before their tombs, are these the ensigns of idolatry ? In his See also:treatise contra Vigilantium (Pair. lat. t. See also:xxiii.) he answers the question with much See also:common sense. There can be no harm if ignorant and See also:simple See also:people, or religious See also:women, light candles in honour of the martyrs. ' We are not See also:born, but reborn, Christians," and that which when done for idols was detestable is acceptable when done for the martyrs. As in the See also:case of the woman with the See also:precious See also:box of ointment, it is not the gift that merits See also:reward, but the faith that inspires it. As for lights in the churches, he adds that " in all the churches of the See also:East, whenever the See also:gospel is to be read, lights are lit, though the sun be rising (jam See also:sole rutilante), not in See also:order to disperse the darkness, but as a visible sign of gladness (ad signiori laetitiae demonstrandum)." Taken in connexion with a statement which almost immediately precedes this—" Cereos autem non See also:clara See also:lace accendimus, sicut frustra calumniaris: sed ut nOctis tenebras hoc solatio temperemus " (§ 7)—this seems to point to the fact that the ritual use of lights in the church services, so far as already established, arose from the same conservative See also:habit as determined the development of liturgical See also:vestments, i.e. the lights which had been necessary at the nocturnal meetings were retained, after the See also:hours of service had been altered, and invested with a symbolical meaning. Already they were used at most of the conspicuous functions of the Church. See also:Paulinus, bishop of See also:Nola (d. 431), describes the altar at the See also:eucharist as " crowned with crowded lights," and even mentions the " eternal lamp." 3 For their use at baptisms we have, among much other evidence, that of See also:Zeno of See also:Verona for the See also:West,4 and that of See also:Gregory of Nazianzus for the East.' Their use at funerals is illustrated by See also:Eusebius's description of the See also:burial of Con- stantine,6 and Jerome's See also:account of that of St Paula.' At ordinations they were used, as is shown by the 6th canon of the See also:council of See also:Carthage (398), which decrees that the See also:acolyte is to See also:hand to the newly ordained See also:deacon ceroferarium cum cereo. 1 This symbolism—whatever it was—was not pagan, i,e. the lamps were not placed in the See also:graves as part of the See also:furniture of the dead—in the Catacombs they are found only in the niches of the galleries and the arcosolia—nor can they have been votive in the sense popularized later. " Clara coronantur densis altaria lychnis " (Poem. De S. Felice natalitium, xiv. 99, in Migne, Patr, lat. 1xi. 467). " Continuum scyphus est argenteus aptus ad usum." " Sal, ignis et oleum " (See also:Lib. i. See also:Tract. xiv. 4, in Migne, xi. 358). ' In sanct. Pasch. c. 2 ; Migne, Patr. graeca, See also:xxxvi. 624). ct41ra 1,4637E5 KbKXC, hrl OKEVWY xpuo v, Bauµavrdv BEaua. rou56piri rapfiXoV (Vita Constantini, iv. 66). I" Cum alii Pontifices lampadhs cereosque proferrent, alii choras psallentium ducerent " (Ep. cviii. ad Eustochium virginem, in Migne). As to the blessing of candles, according to the See also:Liber pontificals See also:Pope See also:Zosimus in 417 ordered these to be blessed,s and the Gallican and Mozarabic rituals also provided for this ceremony? The Feast of the See also:Purification of the Virgin, known as See also:Candlemas (q.v.), because on this day the candles for the whole See also:year are blessed, was established—according to some authorities-by Pope See also:Gelasius I. about 492. As to the question of "altar lights," however, it must be borne in mind that these were not placed upon the altar, or on a See also:retable behind it, until the 12th century. These were originally the candles carried by the deacons, according to the Ordo See also:Romanus (i. 8; ii. 5; iii. 7) seven in number, which were set down either on the steps of the altar, or, later, behind it. In the Eastern Church, to this day, there are no lights on the high altar; the lighted candles stand on a small altar beside it, and at various parts of the service are carried by the lectors or acolytes before the officiating See also:priest or deacon. The " See also:crowd of lights " described by Paulinus as crowning the altar were either grouped round it or suspended in front of it; they are represented by the sanctuary lamps of the Latin Church and by the See also:crown of lights suspended in front of the altar in the See also:Greek. To trace the See also:gradual elaboration of the symbolism and use of ceremonial lights in the Church, until its full development and systematization in the middle ages, would be impossible here. It must suffice to See also:note a few stages in Ocvelop- the See also:process. The burning of lights before the tombs meathet of use. of martyrs led naturally to their being burned also before relics and lastly before images and pictures. This latter practice, hotly denounced as idolatry during the iconoclastic controversy (see ICONOCLASM), was finally established as orthodox by the second See also:general council of See also:Nicaea (787), which restored the worship of images. A later development, however, by which certain lights themselves came to be regarded as See also:objects of worship and to have other lights burned before them, was condemned as idolatrous by the synod of See also:Noyon in 1344.10 The See also:passion for symbolism extracted ever new meanings out of the candles and their use. Early in the 6th century See also:Ennodius, bishop of See also:Pavia, pointed out the three-See also:fold elements of a wax-candle (Opusc. ix. and x.), each of which would make it an offering acceptable to See also:God; the See also:rush-See also:wick is the product of pure See also:water, the wax is the offspring of virgin bees," the flame is sent from heaven." Clearly, wax was a symbol of the Blessed Virgin and the holy humanity of Christ. The later middle ages See also:developed the See also:idea. Durandus, in his Rationale, interprets the wax as the body of Christ, the wick as his soul, the flame as his divine nature; and the consuming candle as symbolizing his passion and death. s This may be the See also:paschal candle only. In some codices the See also:text runs: " Per parochias concessit licentiam benedicendi Cereum Paschalem " (Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. " Cereum Paschale "). In the three variants of the See also:notice of Zosimus given in See also:Duchesne's edition of the Lib. pontif. (,886–,892) the word cera is, however, alone used. Nor does the text imply that he gave to the suburbican churches a See also:privilege hitherto exercised by the See also:metropolitan church. The passage runs: " Hic constituit ut diaconi leva tecta haberent de panels linostimis per parrochias et ut cera benedicatur," &c. Per parrochias here obviously refers to the head-See also:gear of the deacons, not to the candles. a See also the Peregrinatio Sylviae (386), 86, &c., for the use of lights at See also:Jerusalem, and Isidore of See also:Seville (Etym. vii. 12; xx. io) for the usage in the West. That even in the 7th century the blessing of candles was by no means universal is proved by the 9th canon of the council offToledo (6704" De benedicendo cereo et lucerna in privilegiis Paschae." This canon states that candles and lamps are not blessed in some churches, and that inquiries have been made why we do it. In reply, the council decides that it should be done to celebrate the See also:mystery of Christ's resurrection. See Isidore of Seville, Conc., in Migne, Pat. lat. lxxxiv. 369. to Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. " Candela.' " Bees were believed, like See also:fish, to be sexless. Venerandis compactam elementis facem tibi, Domine, mancipamus: in qua trium copula munerum primum de impart numero complacebit: quae quod gratis Deo veniat auctoribus, non habetur incertum: unum quod de fetibus fluminum accedunt nutrimenta flammarum: aliud quod apum tribuit intemerata fecunditas, in quarum partibus nulla partitur damna virginitas: ignis etiam coelo infusus adhibetur " (Opusc. x. in Migne, Patr. lat. t. lxiii.). Jerome and Vlailanthrs. Practice In the 4th century. Eastern Church. In the completed ritual See also:system of the See also:medieval Church, as still preserved in the Roman See also:Catholic communion, the use of ceremonial In the lights falls under three heads. (I) They may be sym- Roman bolical of the light of God's presence, of Christ as " Light Catholic of Light," or of." the children of Light " in conflict with Church. the powers of darkness; they may even be no more than expressions of joy on the occasion of great festivals. (2) They may be votive, i.e. offered as an See also:act of worship (latria) to God. (3) They are, in virtue of their See also:benediction by the Church, sacramentalia, i.e. efficacious for the good of men's souls and bodies, and for the confusion of the powers of darkness.' With one or more of these implications, they are employed in all the public functions of the Church. At the See also:consecration of a church twelve Dedkatioa lights are placed round the walls at the twelve spots where these are anointed by the bishop with holy oil, of a and on every anniversary these are relighted; at the church. See also:dedication of an altar tapers are lighted and tensed at each place where the table is anointed (Pontificate Rom. p. ii. De eccl. dedicat. seu consecrat.). At every liturgical service, and especially at Mass and at See also:choir services, there must be at least At Mass two lighted tapers on the altar,' as symbols of the presence of God and tributes of See also:adoration. For the Mass the and choir See also:rule is that there are six lights at High Mass, four at a services. missa See also:cantata, and two at private masses. At a Pontifical High Mass (i.e. when the bishop celebrates) the lights are seven, because seven golden candlesticks surround the risen Saviour, the See also:chief bishop of the Church (see Rev. i. I2). At most pontifical functions, moreover, the bishop—as the representative of Christ—is preceded by an acolyte with a burning candle (bugia) on a candle-stick. The Ceremoniale Episco,orum (i. 12) further orders that a burning lamp is to hang at all times before each altar, three in front Sanctuary of the high altar, and five before the reserved See also:Sacrament, as symbols of the eternal Presence. In practice, how-lamps. ever, it is usual to have only one lamp lighted before the See also:tabernacle in which the See also:Host is reserved. The See also:special symbol of the real presence of Christ is the Sanctus candle, which is lighted Symbol at the moment of consecration and kept burning until "the the communion. The same symbolism is intended by Real the lighted tapers which must accompany the Host whenever it is carried in procession, or to the sick and Presence. dying. As symbols of light and joy a candle is held on each See also:side of the deacon when See also:reading the Gospel at Mass; and the same symbolism underlies the multiplication of lights on festivals, their number varying with the importance of the occasion. As to the number of these latter no rule is laid down. They differ from liturgical lights in that, whereas these must be tapers of pure beeswax or lamps fed with pure See also:olive oil (except by special See also:dispensation under certain circumstances), those used merely to add splendour to the celebration may be of any material; the only exception being, that in the decoration of the altar See also:gas-lights are forbidden. In general the ceremonial use of lights in the Roman Catholic Church is conceived as a dramatic See also:representation in fire of the life See also:Tenebrae. of Christ and of the whole See also:scheme of salvation. On See also:Easter See also:Eve the new fire, symbol of the light of the newly risen Christ, is produced, and from this are kindled all the lights used throughout the Christian year until, in the gathering darkness (tene- brae) of the Passion, they are gradually extinguished. This quenching of the light of the world is symbolized at the service of Tenebrae in Holy See also:Week by the placing on a stand before the altar of thirteen lighted tapers arranged pyramidally, the See also:rest of the church being in darkness. The See also:penitential See also:psalms are sung, and at the end of each a candle is extinguished. When only the central one is See also:left it is taken down and carried behind the altar, thus symbolizing the ' All three conceptions are brought out in the prayers for the blessing of candles on the Feast of the Purification of the B.V.M. (Candlemas, q.v.). (I) " O holy See also:Lord, . . . who . . by the command didst cause this liquid to come by the labour of bees to the perfection of wax, . . . we beseech thee . . . to bless and sanctify these candles for the use of men, and the See also:health of bodies and souls.... " (2) " . . . these candles, which we thy servants See also:desire to carry lighted to magnify thy name; that by offering them to thee, being worthily inflamed with the holy fire of thy most sweet charity, we may deserve," &c. (3) " 0 Lord Jesus Christ, the true light, .. . mercifully See also: Finally, lights are placed round the bodies of the dead and carried beside them to the Funeral grave, partly as symbols that they still live in the light lights.
of Christ, partly to frighten away the powers of darkness. Conversely, the extinction of lights is part of the ceremony of See also:excommunication (Pontificate Rom. pars iii.). Regiro, See also: This direction was omitted in the
second Prayer-book; but the " Ornaments See also:Rubric " church of of See also:Queen See also: These were later written on See also:paper and fixed to the Paschal Candle, a custom which in his day survived in the Cluniac churches.
Excommaakation.
with the " Gentiles Idolators." This pronouncement, indeed, Rom. Alterthiimer), ii. 238-301 ; article " Cierges et lampes," in the though it certainly condemns the use of ceremonial lights in Abbe J. A. Martigny's Dict. des Antiquites Chritiennes (Paris, 1868) ;
most of its later developments, and especially the conception the articles Lichter " and Koimetarien " (pp. 834 seq ) in See also:Herzog-most Hauck's Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., See also:Leipzig. 1901) ; the article
of them as votive offerings whether to God or to the saints, " Licht " in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon (See also:Freiburg-i.-B., does not necessarily exclude, though it undoubtedly discourages, 1882-1901), an excellent exposition of' the symbolism from the their purely symbolical used In this connexion it is See also:worth Catholic point of view, also " Kerze" and " Lichter"; W. See also: 939 seq.; in all these numerous further references will be found.
without alteration and by the See also: He distinguished himself by See also:justice of See also:Chester and a See also:judge of the King's See also:Bench, and in 1629 his valour in the Seven Years' War, notably at See also:Breslau, See also:Leuthen, by Sir See also: The matter prominent, but declined with great See also:courtesy, saying that he again raised in the case of Read and others v. the Bishop never revolted in the See also:winter." Though suspected by Joseph was of See also:Lincoln (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT), one of the See also:counts of the of See also:collusion with the rebels, the two See also:friends were not long es-See also:indictment being that the bishop had, during the celebration tranged, and after the death of the emperor the prince remained of Holy Communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a shelf in See also:Vienna. His See also:Brabant estates were overrun by the See also:French or retable behind the communion table when they were not in 1792-1793, and his eldest son killed in See also:action at La Croix-du-The necessary for giving light. The See also:archbishop of Canter- Bois in the See also:Argonne (See also:September 14, 1792). He was given the "Lincoln See also:bury, in whose court the case was heard (1889), decided rank of field marshal (1809) and an honorary command at court, Judge that the See also:mere presence of two candles on the table, living in spite of the loss of his estates in See also:comparative luxury See also:meat." burning during the service but lit before it began, and devoting himself to See also:literary work. He lived long enough was lawful under the first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. and had to characterize the proceedings of the See also:congress of Vienna with never been made unlawful. On the case being appealed to the the famous mot: Le Congres danse mais ne See also:marche pas. Privy Council, this particular indictment was dismissed on the He died at Vienna on the 13th of See also:December 1814. His See also:grandson, ground that the See also:vicar, not the bishop, was responsible for the See also:Eugene Lamoral de Ligne (1804-1880), was a distinguished presence of the lights, the general question of the legality of Belgian statesman. altar lights being discreetly left open. His collected See also:works appeared in See also:thirty-four volumes at Vienna The custom of li lighted candles round the bodies during the last years of his life (Melanges militaires, litteraires, placing g sentimentaires), and he bequeathed his See also:manuscripts to the emperor's of the dead, especially when " lying in state," has never wholly Trabant Guard, of which he was See also:captain (CEuvres posthumes, See also:Dresden died out in Protestant countries, though their significance and Vienna, 1817). Selections were published in French and has long been lost sight of 3 In the 18th century, moreover, See also:German (tEuvres choisies de M. le prince de Ligne (Paris, 18o9); it was still customary in England to accompany a funeral with Lettres et pensees du Marechal Prince de Ligne, ed. by Madame de Y See also:Stael (1809) IEuvres historiques, litteraires . . . correspondance et lighted tapers. Picart (op. cit. 1737) gives a See also:plate representing poesies diverses (Brussels, 1859) ; Des Prinzen Karl von Li gne a funeral cortege preceded and accompanied by boys, each carry- militarische Werke, ed. See also:Count See also:Pappenheim (Sulzbach, 1814). The See also:ing four lighted candles in a branched candlestick. There most important of his numerous works on all military subjects is seems to be no See also:record of candles having been carried in other the Fantaisies et prejuges militaires, which originally appeared in g 1780. A modern edition is that published by J. Dumaine (Paris, processions in England since the Reformation. The usage 1879). A German version (Militarische Vorurthezle and Phantasien, in this respect in some " ritualistic " churches is a revival of &c.) appeared as early as 1783. This work, though it deals lightly pre-Reformation ceremonial. and cavalierly with the most important subjects (the prince even See the article " Lucerna," by J. Toutain in Daremberg and proposes to found an See also:international See also:academy of the See also:art of war, Saglio's Dict. des antiquites grecques et romaines (Paris, 1904) ; wherein the reputation of generals could be impartially weighed), J. See also:Marquardt, " Romische Privatalterthumer " (vol. v. of See also:Becker's is a military classic, and indispensable to the students of the post- _ Frederician See also:period. On the whole, it may be said that the prince I This homily, written by Bishop Jewel, is largely founded on adhered to the school of See also:Guibert (q.v.), and a full discussion will be See also:Bullinger's De origine erroris in Divinorum et sacrorum cultu (1528, found in Max Jahns' Gesch. d. Kregswissenschaften, iii. 2091 et seq. 1539). Another very celebrated work by the prince is the See also:mock autobio- A See also:copper-plate in See also:Bernard Picart's Ceremonies and Religious graphy of Prince Eugene (1809). Customs of the Various Nations (Eng. trans., London, 1737), vi. pt. I , See Revue de Bruxelles (See also:October 1839) ; Reiffenberg, " Le Feld- p. 78, illustrating an See also:Anglican Communion service at St Paul's, marechal Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne," Memoires de l'ticademie shows two lighted candles on the holy table. de Bruxelles, vol. xix. ; Peetermans, Le Prince de Ligne, ou un In some parts of See also:Scotland it is still customary to place two ecrivain See also:grand seigneur (See also:Liege, 1857), Etudes et notices historiques lighted candles on a table beside a See also:corpse on the day of burial. concernant l'histoire des Pays Bas, vol. iii. (Brussels, 189o) ; Memoires et publications de la S9ciete des Sciences, &c , du Hainault, vol. iii., 5th See also:series: Dublet Ler,,Prince de Ligne et ses contennporains (Paris, 1889), Wurzbach, Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserth. Osterr (Vienna, 1858) ; Hirtenfeld, Der Mslitdr-Maria-Theresien-Orden, vol. i. (Vienna, 1857) , See also:Ritter von Rettersberg, Biogr. d ausgezeichnetsten Feldherren (See also:Prague, 1829); Schweigerd, Osterr. Heiden, vol. in. (Vienna, 1854) ; Thurheim, F. M. Karl Joseph See also:Furst de Ligne (Vienna, 1877). Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
» Add information or comments to this article.
Please link directly to this article:
Highlight the code below, right click, and select "copy." Then paste it into your website, email, or other HTML. Site content, images, and layout Copyright © 2006 - Net Industries, worldwide. |
|
|
[back] LIGHTNING |
[next] LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood) |