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EUCHARIST (Gr. evXapurria, thanksgiving)
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See also:EUCHARIST (Gr. evXapurria, thanksgiving) , in the See also:Christian See also: The contrast See also:lay between the Dominical Supper or food and drink shared unselfishly by all with all, and the private supper, the feast of Dives, shamelessly gorged under the eyes of timid and shrinking See also:Lazarus. By way of enforcing this point Paul repeats the tradition he had received See also:direct from the Lord, and already handed on to the See also:Corinthians, of how " the Lord Jesus on the See also:night in which he was betrayed " (not necessarily the night of See also:Passover) " took bread and having given thanks See also:brake it and said, This is my See also:body, which is for your See also:sake; this do in remembrance of me. In like manner also the See also:cup, after supper, sayirg, This cup is the new See also:covenant through my See also:blood: this do, as oft as ye drink it, in remembrance of me." Paul adds that this rite commemorated the Lord's See also:death and was to be continued until he should come again, as in that See also:age they expected him ,to do after no See also:long See also:interval: " As often as ye eat this bread and drink the cup, ye do (or ye shall) proclaim the Lord's death till he come." The same See also:epistle (x. 17) attests that one See also:loaf only was broken and distributed: " We who are many, are one loaf (or bread), one body; for we all partake of the one loaf (or bread)." As a single loaf could not satisfy the See also:hunger of many, the rehearsal in these meals of Christ's own See also:action must have been a crowning See also:episode, enhancing their sanctity. The Fractic Penis probably began, as the drinking of the cup certainly ended, the supper; the interval being occupied with the See also:common See also:consumption by the faithful of the provisions they brought. This much is implied by the words " after supper." If, in any See also:case, all See also:present had eaten in their homes beforehand, the giving of the cup would immediately follow on the breaking and eating of the one loaf, but Paul's words indicate that the common meal within the church was the norm. Those who ate at home marked them-selves out as both greedy and lacking in charity. There is no demand that they should come See also:fasting, or Paul could not recommend in (xi. 34) that those who were too hungry to wait until all the brethren were assembled in church, should eat at home and beforehand. See also:Mark xiv. 22-25, Matt. See also:xxvi. 26-29, See also:Luke xxii. 14-20, are, in order of See also:time, our next accounts, Mark representing the See also:oldest tradition. They all in substance repeat Paul's See also:account; but identify the night on which Jesus was betrayed with that of the Pascha. In See also:Matthew and Mark, Jesus says of the bread " Take ye it, this is my body," omitting the See also:idea of sacrifice imported by Paul's addition " which is for you "; but in them Jesus enunciates the same idea when he says of the cup: " This is my blood of the covenant which is poured out for many," See also:Mathew adding " for the remission of sins," a phrase which savours of Heb. ix. 22: " apart from the shedding of blood there is no remission." It is a later addition, and so may be the words " which is poured out for many." But the words which follow have an See also:antique See also:ring: " See also:Amen, I say unto you, I will no more drink of the See also:fruit of the See also:vine, until that See also:day when I drink it new in the See also:kingdom of See also:God." For here Jesus affirms his conviction, in view of his impending death, which unlike his disciples he foresaw, that, when the kingdom of God is instituted on See also:earth, he will take his See also:place in it. But this is the last time he will sit down upon earth with his disciples at the table of the millenarist See also:hope. These See also:sources do not hint that the Last Supper is to be repeated by Christ's followers until the See also:advent of the kingdom. Luke's account is too much interpolated from Paul, and the texts of his oldest See also:MSS. too discrepant, for us to rely on it except so far as it supports the other gospels. It emphasizes869
the fact that the Last Supper was the Pascha. " With See also:desire have I desired to eat this Passover, before I suffer "; and places the bread after the wine, unless indeed the Pauline See also:interpolation comprises the ,whole of See also:verse 19.
The See also:fourth See also:gospel, written perhaps A.D. 90-100, sublimates the rite, in See also:harmony with its See also:general treatment of the See also:life of Jesus: " I am the living bread which cometh down out of See also:heaven, that a See also:man may eat thereof and not See also:die " (See also: " and Jesus answers: " Amen, Amen I say unto you, Except ye eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, ye have not life in yourselves. .. . He that eateth' my flesh and drinketh my blood abideth in me and I in him." In an earlier passage, again in reference to the manna, Jesus is called " the bread of God, which cometh down out of heaven, and giveth life unto the See also:world." They ask: " Lord, ever more give us this bread," and he answers: " I am the bread of life: he that cometh to me shall not hunger, and he that believeth on me shall never thirst." This writer's thought is coloured by the older speculations of See also:Philo, who in See also:metaphor called the Loges the heavenly bread and food, the cupbearer and cup of God; and he seems even to protest against a literal See also:interpretation of the words of institution, since he not only pointedly omits them in his account of the Last Supper, but in v. 63 of this See also:chapter writes: " It is the Spirit that quickeneth; the flesh profiteth nothing: the words that I have spoken unto you are spirit and are life." In Acts ii. 46 we read that, " the faithful continued steadfastly with one See also:accord in the See also:temple "; at the same time " breaking bread at home they partook of food with gladness and singleness of See also:heart, praising God." All such repasts must have been sacred, but we do not know if they included the Eucharistic rite. The care taken in the selecting and ordaining of the seven deacons argues a religious See also:character for the common meals, which they were to serve. Their See also:main See also:duty was to look after the duty of the Hellenistic widows, but inasmuch as meats strangled or consecrated to idols were forbidden, it probably devolved on the deacons to take care that such were not introduced at these common meals. The See also:Essenes, similarly, appointed houses all over See also:Palestine where they could safely eat, and priests of their own to prepare their food. Some Christians escaped the difficulties of their position by eating no See also:meat at all. " He that is weak," says Paul (Rom. xiv. r), " eateth herbs "; that is, becomes a vegetarian. Rather than scandalize weaker brethren, Paul was willing to eat herbs the See also:rest of his life. The travel-document in Acts often refers to the See also:solemn breaking of bread. Thus Paul in See also:xxvii. 35, having invited the See also:ship's See also:company of 276 persons to partake of food, took bread, gave thanks to God in the presence of all, and brake it and began to eat. The rest on See also:board then began to be of See also:good cheer, and themselves also took food. Here it is not implied that Paul shared his food except with his co-believers, but he ate before them all. Whether he repeated the words of institution we cannot say. In Acts xx. 7 the faithful of Troas gather together to break bread " on the first day of the See also:week " after sunset. After a discourse Paul, who was leaving them the next See also:morning, See also:broke bread and ate. This was surely such a See also:meeting as we read of in r Cor. x., and was held on See also:Sunday by night; but long before See also:dawn, since after it Paul " talked with them a long while, even till break of day." In r Cor. xvi. 1 Paul bids the Corinthians, as he had bidden the churches of See also:Galatia, lay up in See also:store on the first of the week, each one of them, See also:money for the poor See also:saints of See also:Jerusalem. This is the first See also:notice of Sunday Eucharistic collections of See also:alms for the poor. Here seems to belong in the order of development the Cathar Eucharist (see See also:CATHARS). The Cathars used only the Lord's See also:prayer in consecrating the bread and used See also:water for wine. The next document in chronological order is the so-called Teaching of the Apostles (A.D. 9o-110). This assigns prayers and rubrics for the celebration of the Eucharist:— IX. " s. Now with regard to the Thanksgiving, thus give ye thanks. " 2. First concerning the cup :—We give thanks to thee,our See also:Father, for the holy vine' of See also:David thy servant, which See also:thou didst make known to us through Jesus thy servant;2 to thee be the See also:glory for ever. " 3. And concerning the broken bread :—We give thanks to thee, our Father, for the life and knowledge which thou didst make known to us through Jesus thy servant; to thee be the glory for ever. " 4. As this broken bread was (once) scattered on the See also:face of the mountains and, gathered together, became one,3 even so may thy Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into thy kingdom; for thine is the glory and the See also:power through Jesus Christ for ever. ` 5. But let no one eat or drink of your Thanksgiving (Eucharist), but they who have been baptized into the name of the Lord; for concerning this the Lord hath said, Give not that which is holy unto the See also:dogs.4 X. " L Then, after being filled, thus give ye thanks: " 2. We give thanks to thee, holy Father, for thy holy name, which thou hast caused to dwell in our See also:hearts, and for the knowledge and faith and See also:immortality which thou didst make known to us through Jesus Christ thy servant; to thee be the glory for ever. " 3. Thou Almighty See also:Sovereign,didst create all things for thy name's sake, and food and drink thou didst give to men for enjoyment, that they should give thanks unto thee; but to us thou didst of thy See also:grace give spiritual food and drink and life eternal through thy servant. ` 4. Before all things, we give thee thanks that thou See also:art mighty; to thee be the glory for ever. " 5. Remember, Lord, thy church to deliver it from all evil, and to perfect it in thy love, and gather it together from the four winds,' the sanctified, unto thy kingdom, which thou bast prepared for it; for thine is the power and the glory for ever. " 6. Come grace, and pass this world away. See also:Hosanna to the God of David! If any one is holy, let him come. If any one is not, let him repent. Maranatha 8 Amen. " But allow the prophets to give thanks as much as they will." -From a subsequent See also:section, ch. xiv. r, we learn that the Eucharist was on Sunday:—" Now when ye are assembled together on the Lord's day of the Lord, break bread and give thanks, having first confessed your transgressions, so that your sacrifice may be pure." The above, like the uninterpolated See also:Lucan account, places the cup first and has no mention of the body and blood of Christ. But in this last and other respects it contrasts with the other synoptic and with the Pauline accounts. The cup is not the blood of Jesus, but the holy vine of David, revealed through Jesus; and the holy vine can but signify the spiritual See also:Israel, the See also:Ecclesia or church or Messianic Kingdom, into which the faithful are to be gathered. The one loaf, as in Paul, symbolizes the unity of the ecclesia, but the cup and bread, given for enjoyment, are symbols at best of the spiritual food and drink of the life eternal given of grace by the Almighty Father through his servant (lit. boy) Jesus. The bread and wine are indeed an offering to God of what is his own, pure because offered in purity of heart; but they are not interpreted of the sacrifice of Jesus' body broken on the See also:cross, or of his blood See also:shed for the remission of See also:sin. It is not, as in Paul, a meal commemorative of Christ's death, nor connected with the Passover, as in the Synoptics. Least of all is it a sacramental eating of the flesh and drinking of the blood of Jesus, a perpetual renewal of kinship, See also:physical and spiritual, with him. The teaching rather breathes the See also:atmosphere of the fourth gospel, which sets the Last Supper before the feast of the Passover (xiii. I), and pointedly omits Christ's institution of the Eucharist, substituting for it the washing of his disciples' feet. The blessing of the Bread and Cup, as an incident in a feast of Christian brotherhood, is all that the See also:Didache has in common with Paul and the Synoptists. The use of the words " after being filled," in x. r, implies that the brethren ate heartily, and that the cup and bread formed no isolated episode. The Baptized alone are admitted to this Supper, and they only after See also:confession of their sins. Every Sunday at least they are to celebrate it. A See also:prophet can " in the Spirit appoint a table," that is, order a Lord's r Ps. lxxx. 8-19. 2 Acts iv. 25, 27. a t Cor. X. 17; Soph. to. 4 Matt. vii. 6. 6 Matt. See also:xxiv. 31. 6 t Cor. xvi. 22.Supper to be eaten, whenever he is warned by the Spirit to do so. But he must not himself partake of it—a very See also:practical See also:rule. The prophets are to give thanks as they like at these " breakings of bread," without being restricted to the prayers here set forth. In xv. 3 the overseers or bishops and deacons, though their functions are less spiritual than administrative and economic, are allowed to take the place of the prophets and teachers. The phrase used is Aeirovpye'Ev rrfv Xerrovpyt tv, " to liturgize the See also:liturgy." This word " liturgy " soon came: to connote the Eucharist. The prophets who normally preside over the Suppers are called " your high-priests," and receive from the faithful the first-fruits of the winepress and threshing-See also:floor, of oxen and See also:sheep, and of each batch of new-made bread, and of oil. Out of these they provide the Suppers held every Lord's day, offering them as " a pure sacrifice." Bishops and deacons hold a subordinate place in this document; but the contemporary Epistle of See also:Clement of See also:Rome attests that these bishops " had offered the gifts without blame and holily." The word " liturgy " is also used by Clement. See also:Pliny's See also:Letter (Epist. 96), written A.D. 112 to the See also:emperor See also:Trajan, about the Christians of See also:Bithynia, attests that on a fixed day, stato die (no doubt Sunday), they met before dawn and recited antiphonally a hymn " to Christ as to a god." They then separated, but met again later to partake of a meal, which, however, was of an See also:ordinary and See also:innocent character. Pliny regarded their meal as identical in character with the common meals of hetairiae, i.e. the • See also:trade-See also:gilds or See also:secret See also:societies, which' were then, as now, often -inimical to the See also:government. Even benefit societies were feared and forbidden by the See also:Roman autocrats, and the " dominical suppers " of the Christians were not likely to be spared. Pliny accordingly forbade them in Bithynia, and the renegade Christians to whom he owed his See also:information gave them up. These suppers included an Eucharist; for it was because the faithful ate in the latter of the flesh and blood of the Son of God that the See also:charge of devouring children was made against them. If, then, this afternoon meal did not include it, Pliny's remark that their food was ordinary and innocent is unintelligible. See also:Ignatius, about A.D. 120, in his letter to the See also:Ephesians, defines the one bread broken in the Eucharist as a " See also:drug of immortality, and antidote that we should not die, but live for ever in Jesus Christ." He also rejects as invalid any Eucharist not held "under the See also:bishop or one to whom he shall have committed it." ' For the Christian prophet has disappeared, and with him the See also:custom of holding Eucharists in private dwellings. In the Epistle to See also:Diognetus, formerly assigned to See also:Justin See also:Martyr, we read (v. 7) that " Christians have in See also:vogue among themselves a table common, yet not common " (i.e. unclean). In Justin's first See also:apology (c. 140) we have two detailed accounts of the Eucharist, of which the first, in ch. 65, describes the first communion of the newly baptized: " After we have thus washed the See also:person who has believed and conformed we See also:lead him to the brethren so "called, where they are gathered together, to offer public prayer both for ourselves and for the person illuminated, and for all others everywhere, earnestly, to the end that having learned the truth we may be made worthy to be found not only in our actions good citizens, but guardians of the things enjoined. " We salute one another with a See also:kiss at the end of the prayers. Then there is presented to the See also:president of the brethren bread and a cup of water (and of a mixture,)' and he having taken it sends up praise and glory to the father of all things by the name of the Son and Holy Spirit, and he offers at length thanksgiving (eucharistia) for our having been made worthy of these things by him. But when he concludes the prayer and thanksgiving all the See also:people present See also:answer with See also:acclamation ` Amen.' But the word ' Amen ' in See also:Hebrew signifies ` so be it.' And when the president has given thanks, and all the people have so answered, those who are called by us deacons distribute to each of those present, for them to partake of the bread (and wine) 8 and water, for which thanks have been given, and they carry portions away to those who are not present. And this food is called by us Eucharistia, and of it none may partake See also:save those who believe our teachings to be true and have been washed in the See also:bath which is for remission of sin and rebirth, and who so live as ' We should probably omit the words bracketed. 8 The codex Othcbonianus omits the words bracketed. Christ taught. For we do not receive these things,as comnion bread or common drink. For as Jesus Christ our Saviour was made flesh by Word of God and possessed flesh and blood for our sake; so we have been taught that the food blessed (lit, thanked for) by prayer of Word spoken by him, food by which our blood and flesh are by See also:change of it (into them) nourished, is both flesh and blood of Jesus so made flesh. For the apostles in the memorials made by them, which are called gospels, have so related it to have been enjoined on them: to wit, that Jesus took bread, gave thanks and said: This do ye in memory of me; this is my body, and the cup likewise he took and gave thanks and said, This is my blood; and he distributed to them alone. And this rite too the evil demons by way of See also:imitation handed down in the mysteries of See also:Mithras. For that bread and a cup of water is presented in the See also:rites of their See also:initiation with certain conclusions (or epilogues), you either know or can learn." The second account, in ch. 67, adds that the faithful both of See also:town and See also:country met for the rite on Sunday, that the prophets were read as well as the gospels, that the president after the See also:reading delivered an exhortation to imitate in their lives the goodly narratives; and that each brought offerings to the president out of which he aided orphans and widows, the sick, the prisoners and strangers sojourning with them. These contributions of the faithful seem to be included by Justin along with the bread and cup as sacrifices acceptable to God. But he also particularly specifies (Dialog. 345) that perfect and pleasing sacrifices alone consist in prayers and thanksgivings (thusia). The elements are gifts or offerings. Justin was a Roman, but may not represent the See also:official Roman church. The rite as he pictures it agrees well with the See also:developed liturgies. of a Iater age. See also:Irenaeus (See also:Gaul and See also:Asia See also:Minor, before too) in his See also:work against heresies, iv. 31, 4, points to the sacrament in See also:proof that the human body may become incorruptible: " As bread from the earth on receiving unto itself the invocation of God is no longer common bread, but is an Eucharist, composed of two elements, an earthly and a heavenly, so our bodies by partaking of the Eucharist cease to be corruptible, and possess the hope of eternal resurrection." There is a similar .passage in the 36th fragment (ed. See also:Harvey ii. p. 500), sketching the rite and calling the elements antitypes: " The See also:oblation of the Eucharist is not fleshly, but spiritual and so pure. For we offer to God the bread and the cup of blessing (dd)oyia), thanking hint for that he bade the earth produce these fruits for our sustenance. And therewith having finished the offering (apood,ope) we invoke the Holy Spirit to constitute this offering, both the bread body of Christ and the cup the blood of Christ, that those who partake of these antitypes (Zoo-lies-a, i.e. surrogates) may win remission of sins and life eternal." Here we See also:note the stress laid on the Invocation of the Spirit to operate the transformation of the elements, though in what sense they are transformed is not defined. This Epiklesis survives in the See also:Greek liturgies, but in the Roman a prayer takes its place that the See also:angel of the Lord may take the oblation laid on the visible See also:altar, and carry it up to the altar See also:sublime into the presence of the divine See also:majesty. We must not forget that the church of Irenaeus was Greek. To the second century, lastly, belongs in See also:part the See also:evidence of the catacombs, on the walls of which are depicted persons reclining at tables supporting a See also:fish, accompanied by one or more baskets of loaves, and more rarely by flasks of wine or water. The fish represents Christ; and in the Inscription of Abercius, bishop of See also:Hierapolis about A.D. 16o, we have this symbolism enshrined in a See also:literary See also:form: " In company with Paul I followed, while everywhere Faith led the way, and set before me the fish from the See also:fountain, mighty and stainless, whom a pure virgin grasped, and gave this to See also:friends to eat always, having good wine and giving the mixt cup with bread:" This See also:representation of baskets of loaves and several fishes, or of one fish and several loaves, seems to contradict the usage of one loaf. It may represent the See also:agape or Lord's Supper as a whole, of which the one loaf and cup formed an episode. Or the entire stock of bread may have been regarded as flesh of Jesus in virtue of the initial consecration of one single loaf. To the second century also belong two gnostic uses. Firstly, that of See also:Marcus, a Valentinian, of See also:South Gaul about 150, whose See also:influence extended to Asia Minor. Irenaeus relates (Bk. I., ch, vii.2), that this "magician " used in the Eucharist cups apparently mixt with wine, but really containing water, and during long invocations made them appear " purpleand red, as if the universal Grace Xapts dropped some of her blood into the cup through, his invocation, and by way of inspiring worshippers with a passion to See also:taste the cup and drink deep of the influence termed Charis.'' Such a rite presupposes a belief in a real change of the elements; and water must have been used. In the sequel Irenaeus' recites the Invocation read by Marcus before the communicants:
" Grace that is before all things, that passeth understanding and words, replenish thy inner man, and make to abound in thee the knowledge of her, . See also:sowing in the good See also:soil the See also:grain of See also:mustard See also:seed."
The Acts of See also: Ignatius, though in Smyrn. y he asserts the Eucharist to be Christ's " flesh which suffered for our sins," elsewhere speaks of the blood as being joy eternal and lasting," as " hope," as « love incorruptible," and of the flesh as " faith " or as the gospel." Clement of See also:Alexandria (c. 18o) regards the rite as an initiation in divine knowledge and immortality. The only food he recognizes is spiritual; e.g. knowledge of the divine Essence is " eating and drinking of the divine Word." So See also:Origen declares the bread which God the Word asserted was his body to be that which nourishes souls, the word from God the Word proceeding, the Bread from the heavenly Bread. Not the visible bread held in his See also:hand, nor the visible cup, were Christ's body and blood, but the word in the mystery of which the bread was to be broken and the wine to be poured out. " We drink Christ's blood," he says elsewhere, " when we receive His words in which standeth Life." So the author of the Contra Marcellum writes in view of John vi. 63 as follows (De eccl. Theol. p. r8o): " In these words he instructed them to interpret in a spiritual sense his utterances about his flesh and blood. Do not, he said, think that I mean the flesh which invests and covers me, and bid you eat that; nor suppose either that I command you to drink my sensible and somatic,blood. See also:Nay, you know well that my words which I have spoken unto you are spirit and life. It follows that the very words and discourses are his flesh and blood, of which he that constantly partakes, nourished as it were upon heavenly bread, will partake of the heavenly life. Let not then, he says, this scandalize you which I have said about eating of my flesh and about drinking of my blood. Nor let the obvious and first hand meaning of what I said about my flesh and blood disturb you when you hear it. For these words avail nothing if heard and understood literally (or sensibly). But it is the spirit which quickens them that can understand spiritually what they hear." But these views were not those of the uninstructed pagans who filled the churches and needed a rite which brought them, as their old sacrifices had done, into physical contact and union with their god. Their point of view was better expressed in the scruples of priests, who, as See also:Tertullian (c. 200) records (De Carona, iii.), were careful lest a crumb of the bread or a drop of the wine should fall on the ground, and by such incidents the body of Christ be harassed and attacked! The Eucharist as a Sacrifice.—Before the 3rd century we cannot trace the view that in the Eucharistic rite the death of Christ, regarded from the Pauline standpoint as an atoning or redemptive sacrifice for the sins of mankind, is renewed and repeated, though the germ out of which it would surely grow is already present in the words " My blood . . . which is shed for many " of Matt. and Mark; yet more surely in Paul's " my body which is in your behoof " and " this do in See also:commemoration of me," where the Greek word for do, Gr. aoceire, Lat. facile, could to See also:pagan ears mean " this do ye sacrifice." In the first two centuries the rite is spoken of as an offering and as a bloodless sacrifice; but it is God's own creations, the bread and wine, alms and first-fruits, which, offered with a pure See also:conscience, he receives as from friends, and bestows in turn on the poor; it is the praise and prayers which are the sacrifice. In these centuries See also:baptism was the rite for the remission of sin, not the Eucharist; it is the prophet in the Didache who presides at the Lord's Supper, not the Levitically conceived See also:priest; nor as yet has the Table become an Altar. Among Christians, prayers, supplications and thanksgivings have taken the place of the sacrifices of the old covenant. In See also:Cyprian of See also:Carthage (c. 250) we first find the Eucharist regarded as a sacrifice of Christ's body and blood offered by the priest for the sins of the living and dead. We cannot drink the blood of Christ unless Christ has been first trodden under See also:foot and pressed. . . . As Jesus our high priest offered himself as a sacrifice to his Father, so. the human priest takes Christ's place; and imitates his action by offering in church a true and full sacrifice to God the Father (Ep. 63). He speaks of the dominical See also:host (hostia), and takes the verb to do in Paul's letter in the sense of to sacrifice. As early as Tertullian prayers for the dead, who were named, were offered in the rite; but there was as yet no idea of the sacrifice of Christ being reiterated in their behalf. After Cyprian's day this view gains ground in the See also:West, and almost obscures the older view that the rite is primarily an act of communion with Christ. In harmony with Cyprian's new conception is another innovation of his age and place, that of children communicating; both were the natural See also:accompaniment of See also:infant baptism, of which we first hear in his letters. In the See also:East we do not hear of the sacrifice of the body and blood before See also:Eusebius, about the See also:year 300. In the Armenian church of the 12th century the idea of a reiterated sacrificial death of Christ still seemed bizarre and barbarous.' But as early as 558 in Gaul the bread was arranged on the altar in the form of a man, so that one believer ate his See also:eye, another his See also:ear, a third his hand, and so on, according to their respective merits! This was for-bidden by See also:Pope See also:Pelagius I.; but in the Greek church the custom survives, the priest even stabbing with " the holy See also:spear " in its right See also:side the human figure planned out of the bread, by way of rehearsing in See also:pantomime the narrative of John xix. 34• The change from a commemoration of the Passion to a re-enacting of it came slowly in the Greek church. Thus See also:Chrysostom (See also:Ham. 17, ad Heb.), after See also:writing " We offer (aocovpev) not another sacrifice, but the same," instantly corrects himself and adds: " or rather we perform a commemoration of the sacrifice." This was exactly the position also of the Armenian church. Wine or Water?—Justin Martyr perhaps contemplated the use of water. instead of wine, and See also:Tatian his See also:pupil used it. The Marcionites, the See also:Ebionites, or Judaeo-Christians of Palestine, the Montanists of See also:Phrygia, See also:Africa and Galatia, the See also:confessor See also:Alcibiades of See also:Lyons, c. A.D. 177 (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. v. 3. 2), equally used it. Cyprian (Ep. 63) affirms (c. 250) that his predecessors on the See also:throne of Carthage had used Water, and that many See also:African bishops continued to do so, " out of See also:ignorance," he says, " and simplemindedness, and God would forgive them." .Pionius, the See also:Catholic martyr of See also:Smyrna, c. 250, also used water. In the Acts of Thomas it is used. Such uniformity of See also:language ' See Nerses of Lambron, See also:Opera Armenice (See also:Venice, 1847), pp. 74, 75, I0I, &C. has led Prof. See also:Harnack to suppose that in the earliest age water was used equally with wine, and Eusebius the historian, who had means of judging which we have not, saw no difficulty in identifying with the first converts of St Mark the See also:Therapeutae of Philo who took only bread and water in their holy repast. Abercius and Irenaeus are the first to speak of wine mixt with water, of a kr¢ma (icpaµa) or temperamentum. In the East, then as now, no one took wine without so mixing it. Cyprian insists on the admixture of water, which he says represented the humanity of Jesus, as wine his godhood. The users of water were named See also:Aquarii or hydroparastatae in the 4th century, and were liable to death under the See also:code of See also:Theodosius. Some of the Monophysite churches, e.g. the Armenian, eschewed water and used pure wine, so falling under the censure of the See also:council in Trullo of A.D. 692. See also:Milk and See also:honey was added at first communions. Oil was sometimes offered, as well as wine, but it would seem for consecration only, and not for consumption along with the sacrament. With the bread, however, was sometimes consecrated See also:cheese, e.g. by the African Montanists in the 2nd century. See also:Bitter herbs also were often added, probably because they were eaten with the See also:Paschal See also:lamb. Many early canons forbid the one and the other. Hot water was mixt with the wine in the Greek churches for some centuries, and this custom is seen in See also:catacomb paintings. It increased the resemblance to real blood. Position of the Faithful at the Eucharist.—Tertullian, Eusebius; Chrysostom and others represent the faithful as See also:standing at the Eucharist. In the art of the catacombs they sit or recline in the ordinary attitude of banqueters. In the. age of Christ standing up at the Paschal meal had been given up, and it was become the rule to recline. Kneeling with a view to See also:adoration of the elements was unheard of in the See also:primitive church, and the Armenian Fathers of the 12th century insist that the sacrament was intended by Christ to be eaten and not gazed at (Nerses, op. cit. p. 167). Eucharistic or any other liturgical See also:vestments were unknown until See also:late in the 5th century, when certain bishops were honoured with the same See also:gallium worn by See also:civil officials (see VESTMENTS). In the Latin and in the Monophysite churches of See also:Armenia and See also:Egypt unleavened bread is used in the Eucharist on the somewhat uncertain ground that the Last Supper was the Paschal meal. The Greek church uses leavened. Transubstantiation.—In the primitive age no one asked how Christ was present in the Eucharist, or how the elements became his body and blood. The Eucharist formed part of an agape or love feast until the end of the 2nd century, and in parts of Christendom continued to be so much later. It was, save where See also:animal sacrifices survived, the Christian sacrifice, See also:par excellence, the counterpart for the converted of the sacrificial communions of paganism; and though charged with higher significance than these, it yet reposed on a like background of religious usage and beliefs. But when the Agape on one side and paganism on the other receded into a dim past, owing to the enhanced sacrosanctity of the Eucharist and because of the severe edicts of the emperor Theodosius and his successors, the psychological back-ground See also:fell away, and the Eucharist was left isolated and See also:hanging in the See also:air. Then men began to ask themselves what it meant. See also:Rival See also:schools of thought sprang up, and controversy raged over it, as it had aforetime about the homoousion, or the two natures. Thus the sacrament which was intended to be a See also:bond of See also:peace, became a See also:chief cause of dissension and bloodshed, and was often discussed as if it were a vulgar See also:talisman. See also:Serapion of Thmuis in Egypt, a younger contemporary of See also:Athanasius, in his Eucharistic prayers combines the language of the Didache with a high sacramentalism See also:alien to that document which now only survived in the form of a grace used at table in the nunneries of Alexandria (see AGAPE). He entreats " the Lord of See also:Powers to fill this sacrifice with his Power and Participation," and calls the elements a " living sacrifice, a bloodless offering." The bread and wine before consecration are " likenesses of his body and blood," this in virtue of the words pronounced over them by Jesus on the night of his betrayal. The prayer then continues thus: " O God of truth, let thy holy Word See also:settle upon this bread, that the bread may become body of the word, and on this cup, that the cup may become blood of the truth. And cause all who communicate to receive a drug of life for healing of every disease and empowering of all moral advance and virtue." Here the bread and wine become by consecration tenements in which the Word is reincarnated, as he aforetime dwelled in flesh. They cease to be See also:mere likenesses of the body and blood, and are changed into receptacles of divine power and intimacy, by swallowing which we are benefited in soul and body. See also:Cyril of Jerusalem in his catechises 5 enunciates the same idea of pera(3oXil or transformation. See also:Gregory of Nyssa also about the same date (in See also:Migne, Patrolog. Graeca, vol. 46, See also:col. 581, oration on the Baptism) asserts a " trans-formation " or " transelementation " (j ra rrolx.iw rLS) of the elements into centres of mystic force; and assimilates their consecration to that of the water of baptism, of the altar, of oil or See also:chrism, of the priest. He compares it also to the change of See also:Moses' See also:rod into a snake, of the See also:Nile into blood, to the virtue inherent in See also:Elijah's See also:mantle or in the See also:wood of the cross or in the See also:clay mixt of dust and the Lord's spittle, or in See also:Elisha's See also:relics which raised a See also:corpse to life, or in the burning See also:bush. All these, he says, " were parcels of See also:matter destitute of Iife and feeling, but through miracles they became vehicles of the power of God absorbed or taken into themselves." He thus views the consecration of the elements as akin to other consecrations; and, like priestly ordination, as involving " a See also:metamorphosis for the better," a phrase which later on became classical. John of See also:Damascus (c. 750) believed the bread to be mysteriously changed into the Christ's body, just as when eaten it is changed into any human body; and he argued that it is wrong to say, as Irenaeus had said, that the elements are mere antitypes after as before consecration. In the West, See also:Augustine, like Eusebius and See also:Theodoret, calls the elements signs or symbols of the body and blood signified in them; yet he argues that Christ " took and lifted up his own body in his hands when he took the bread." At the same time he admits that " no one eats Christ's flesh, unless he has first adored " (nisi See also:Arius adoraverit). But he qualifies this " Receptionist " position by declaring that Judas received the sacrament, as if the unworthiness of the recipient made no difference.
Out of this mist of contradictions scholastic thought strove to emerge by means of clear-cut See also:definitions. The See also:drawback for the dogmatist of such a view as Serapion broaches in his prayers was this, that although it explained how the See also:Logos comes to be immanent in the elements, as a soul in its body, nevertheless it did not See also:guarantee the presence in or rather substitution for the natural elements of Christ's real body and blood. It only provided an avrirerov or See also:surrogate body. In 830-850, Paschasius Radbert taught that after the priest has uttered the words of institution, nothing remains save the body and blood under the outward form of bread and wine; the sub-stance is changed and the accidents alone remain. The elements are miraculously recreated as body and blood. This view harmonized with the docetic view which lurked in East and West, that the manhood of Jesus was but a likeness or semblance under which the God was concealed. So See also:Marcion argued that Christ's body was not really flesh and blood, or he could not have called it bread arid wine. Paschasius shrank from the logical outcome of his view, namely, that Christ's body or part of it is turned into human excrement, but See also:Ratramnus, another See also: Ratramnus's view thus resembled Serapion's, after whom the elements furnisha new vehicle of the Spirit's influence, a new body through which the Word operates, a fresh sojourning among us of the Word, though consecrated bread is in itself no more Christ's natural body than are we who assimilate it. Other doctors of the 9th century, e.g. See also:Hincmar of See also:Reims and Haimo of See also:Halberstadt, took the side of Paschasius, and affirmed that the substance of the bread and wine is changed, and that God leaves the See also:colour, taste and other outward properties out of See also:mercy to the worshippers, who would be overcome with dread if the underlying real flesh and blood were nakedly revealed to their gaze ! . Berengar in the iith century assailed this view, which was really that of transubstantiation, alleging that there is no substance in matter apart from the accidents, and that therefore Christ cannot be corporally present in the sacrament; because, if so, he must be spatially present, and there will be two material bodies in one space; moreover his body will be in thousands of places .at once. Christ, he said, is present spiritually, so that the elements, while remaining what they were, unremoved and undestroyed, are advanced to be something better: amine cui a Deo benedicatur, non absumi, non auferri, non destrui, sed manere et in melius quam erat necessario provehi. This was the phrase of Gregory of Nyssa. Berengar in a weak moment in 1059 was forced by the pope to recant and assert that " the true body and blood are not only a sacrament, but in truth touched and broken by the hands of the priests and pressed by the See also:teeth of the faithful," and this position remains in every Roman See also:catechism. Such dilemmas as whether a See also:mouse can devour the true body, and whether it is not involved in all the obscenities of human See also:digestive processes, were See also:ill met by this ruling. Each party dubbed the other stercoranists (dung-feasters), and the controversy was often marred by indecencies. As in the 3rd century the Roman church decided in respect of baptism that the sacrament carries the church and not the church the sacrament, so in the dispute over the Eucharist it ended, in spite of more spiritual views essayed by See also:Peter Lombard, by insisting on the more materialistic view at the fourth Lateran Council in 1215, whose See also:decree runs thus:—" The body and blood of Jesus Christ are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the See also:species of bread and wine, the bread and wine respectively being transubstantiated into body and blood by divine power, so that in order to the perfecting of the mystery of unity we may ourselves receive from his (body) what he himself receives from ours." In 1264 See also:Urban IV. instituted the Corpus Christi Feast by way of giving liturgical expression to this view. Communion in One See also:Kind.—Up to about 'too laymen in the West received the communion in both kinds, and except in a few disciplinary cases the wine was not refused. In 1099, by a decree of Pope Paschal II., children might omit the wine and invalids the bread. The communion of the laity in the bread alone was enjoined by the council of See also:Constance in 1415, and by the council of See also:Trent in 1562. The reformed churches of the West went back to the older rule which Eastern churches had never forsaken. Mass.-Thetermmass,whichsurvivesin See also:Candlemas, See also:Christmas, Michaelmas, is from the Latin missa, which was in the 3rd century a technical term for the dismissal of any lay meeting, e.g. of a See also:law-See also:court, and was adopted in that sense by the church as early as See also:Ambrose (c. 350). The catechumens or unbaptized, together with the penitents, remained in church during the See also:Litany, collect, three lections, two See also:psalms and See also:homily. The See also:deacon then cried out: " Let the catechumens depart. Let all catechumens go out." This was the missa of the catechumens. The rest of the rite was called missa fidelium, because only the initiated remained. Similarly the collect with which often the rite began is the prayer ad collectam, i.e. for the See also:congregation met together or collected. The corresponding Greek word was synaxis. After the catechumens were gone the priest said: " The Lord be with you, let us pray," and the service of the mass followed. In the West, says See also:Duchesne (Origines, p. 179), not only catechumens, but the baptized who did not communicate left the church before the communion of the faithful began(? after the communion of the See also:clergy). In See also:Anglican churches non-communis cants used to leave the church after the prayer for the Church Militant. Ritualists now keep unconfirmed children in church during the entire rite, through ignorance of ancient usage, in order that they may learn to adore the consecrated elements. For this moment of See also:homage to material elements ritually filled with divine potency may be so exaggerated as to obscure the rite's ancient significance as a communion of the faithful in mystic food. Ideas of Reformers.—The 16th-century reformers strove to avoid the literalism of the words " This is my body," accepted frankly by the Roman and Eastern churches, and urged a Receptionist view, viz. that Christ is in the sacrament only spiritually consumed by worthy recipients alone, the material body not being actually chewed. This is seen by a comparison of other confessions with the Profession of Catholic Faith in accordance with the council of Trent, in the See also:bull of See also:Pius IV., which runs thus: " I profess that in the Mass is offered to God a true, proper and propitiatory sacrifice, for the living and the dead, and that in the. most holy sacrament of the Eucharist there is truly really and in substance the body and blood, together with the soul and divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ, and that there does take place a See also:con-version of the entire substance of the bread into the body, and of the entire substance of the wine into the blood, which See also:conversion the Catholic Church doth See also:call Transubstantiation. I also admit that under one of the other species clone the entire and whole Christ and the true sacrament is received." The 28th Article of See also:Religion of the Church of See also:England is as follows: " The Supper of the Lord . . . is a Sacrament of our Redemption by Christ's death; insomuch that to such as rightly; worthily, and with faith, receive the same, the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ, and likewise the-Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ. Transubstantiation . . . cannot be proved by holy See also:writ. . " The Body of Christ is given, taken and eaten, in the Supper, only after a heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean whereby the Body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is Faith. " The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's See also:ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped." At the end of the communion rite the prayer-book, in view of the ordinance to receive the Sacrament kneeling, adds the following: " It is hereby declared, that thereby no adoration is intended, or ought to be done, either unto the Sacramental Bread or Wine, there bodily received, or unto any See also:Corporal Presence of Christ's natural Flesh and Blood. For the Sacramental Bread and Wine remain still in their very natural substances, and therefore may not be adored (for that were See also:idolatry, to be abhorred of all faithful Christians) ; and the natural Body and Blood of our Saviour Christ are in Heaven, and not here; it being against the truth of Christ's natural Body to be at one time in more places than one." These monitions and prescriptions are rapidly becoming a dead-letter, but they possess a certain See also:historical See also:interest. The Helvetic Confession' of A.U. 1566 (caput xxi. De sacra coena Domini) runs as follows: " That it may be more rightly and clearly understood how the flesh and blood of Christ can be food and drink of the faithful, and be received by them unto eternal life, let us add these few remarks. Chewing is not of one kind alone. For there is a corporeal chewing, by which food is taken into the mouth by man, bruised with the teeth and swallowed down into the belly. . As the flesh of Christ cannot be corporeally chewed without wickedness and truculence, so it is not food of the belly. . There is also a spiritual chewing of the body of Christ, not such that by it we understand the very food to be changed into spirit, but such that, the body and blood of the Lord abiding in their essence and peculiarity, they are spiritual)y communicated to us, not in any corporeal way, but in a spiritual, through the Holy Spirit which applies and bestows on us those things which were prepared through the flesh and blood of the Lord betrayed for our sake to death, to wit, remission of sins, liberation and life eternal, so that Christ lives in us and we in him. . " In addition to the aforesaid spiritual chewing, there is also a sacra-mental chewing of the Lord's body, by which the faithful not only partakes spiritually and inwardly of the true body and blood of the Lord, but outwardly by approaching the Lord's table, receives the. ' This represents the views of See also:Calvin. visible sacrament of his body and blood. . . But he who without faith approaches the sacred table, albeit he communicate in the sacrament, yet he perceives not the matter of the sacrament, whence is life and salvation. . . .
The Augustan Confession presented by the See also:German See also:electors to See also: Original Significance of the Eucharist.—It is doubtful if the attempts of reformers to spiritualize the Eucharist bring us, except so far as they pruned See also:ritual extravagances, nearer to its original significance; perhaps the Roman, Greek and See also:Oriental churches have better preserved it. This significance remains to be discussed; the cognate question of how far the development of the Eucharist was influenced by the pagan mysteries is discussed in the article SACRAMENT. That the Lord's Supper was from the first a meal symbolic of Christian unity and commemorative of Christ's death is questioned by none. But Paul, while he saw this much in it, saw much more; or he could not in the same epistle, x. 18-22 assimilate communion in the flesh and blood of Jesus, on the one hand, to the sacrificial communion with the altar which made Israel after the flesh one; and on the other to the communion with devils attained by pagans through sacrifices offered before idols. It has been justly remarked of the Pauline view, that " The union with the Lord Himself, to which those who partake of the Lord's Supper have, is compared with the union which those who partake of a sacrifice have with the deity to whom the altar is devoted—in the case of the Israelites with God, of the See also:heathen with demons. This idea that to partake of sacrifice is to devote one-self to the deity, lies at the See also:root of the ancient idea of See also:worship, whether Jewish or heathen; and St Paul uses it as being readily understood. In this connexion the See also:symbol is never a mere symbol, but a means of real union. ' The cup is the covenant ' " (Prof. Sanday in See also:Hastings' See also:Dictionary of the See also:Bible, 3, 149). Paul caps his See also:argument thus:—" Ye cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons: ye cannot partake of the table of the Lord and of the table of demons. Or do we provoke the Lord to See also:jealousy? Are we stronger than he?" And these words with their context prove that Paul, like the Fathers of the church, regarded the gods and goddesses as real living supernatural beings, but See also:malignant. They were the powers and principalities with whom he was ever at See also:war. The Lord also is jealous of them, if any one See also:attempt to combine their cult with his, for to do so is to doubt the supremacy of his name above all names. Both in its inner nature then and outward
effects the Eucharist was the Christian counterpart of these two 'other forms of communion of which one, the heathen, was excluded from the first, and the other, the Jewish, soon to disappear. It is their analogue, and to understand it we must understand them, not forgetting that Paul, as a Semite, and his hearers, as converted pagans, were imbued with the sacrificial ideas of the old world.
" A See also:kin," remarks W. See also:Robertson See also: 21) had been made sin, and sacrificed for us, becoming as it were a new Passover (I Cor. v. 7). By a mysterious sympathy the bread and wine over which the words, " This is my body which is for you," and " This cup is the new covenant in my blood," had been uttered, became Christ's body and blood; so that by partaking of these the faithful were See also:united with each other and with Christ into one kinship. They became the body of Christ, and his blood or life was in them, and they were members of him. Participation in the Eucharist gave actual life, and it was due to their irregular attendance at it that many members of the Corinthian church " were weak and sickly and not a few slept " (i.e. had died). As the author already cited adds (p. 313) : " The notion that by eating the 'flesh, or particularly by drinking the blood, of another living being, a man absorbs its nature or life into his own, is one which appears among primitive peoples in many forms." But this effect of participation in the bread and cup was not in Paul's See also:opinion automatic, was no mere opus operatum; it depended on the ethical co-operation of the believer, who must not eat and drink unworthily, that is, after refusing to See also:share his meats with the poorer brethren, or with any other See also:guilt in his soul. The phrases " discern the body " and " discern ourselves " in I Cor. xi. 29, 31 are obscure. Paul evidently plays on the verb, krinO, diakrind, katakrind (Kpivw, &a,cpivw, Karawpivw). The general sense is clear, that those who consume the holy food without a clear conscience, like those who handle sacred objects with impure hands, will suffer physical harm from its contact, as if they were undergoing the See also:ordeal of touching a holy thing. The idea, therefore, seems to be that as we must distinguish the holy food over which the words " This is my body " have been uttered from common food, so we must See also:separate ourselves before eating it from all that is guilty and impure. The food that is See also:taboo must only be consumed by persons who are equally taboo or pure. If they are not pure, it condemns them. The " one " loaf has many See also:parallels in ancient sacrifices, e.g. the Latin tribes when they met annually at their common temple partook of a " single " bull. And in Greek Panegureis or festivals the sacrificial wine had to be dispensed from one common bowl: " Unto a common cup they come together, and from it pour libations as well as sacrifice," says See also:Aristides Rhetor in his Isthmica in Neptunum, p. 45. To ensure the continued unity of the bread, the Roman church ever leaves over from a preceding consecration See also:half a holy See also:wafer, called fermentum, which is added in the next celebration. With what See also:awe Paul regarded the elements mystically identified with Christ's body and life is clear from his See also:declaration in I Cor. Xi. 27, that he who consumes, them unworthily is guilty or See also:holden of the Lord's body and blood. This is the language of the ancient ordeal which as a test of innocence required the accused to See also:touch or still better to eat a holy See also:element. A wife who drank the holy water in which the dust of the See also:Sanctuary was mingled (Num. v. 1' See also:foil.) offended so deeply against it, if unfaithful, that she was punished with See also:dropsy and wasting. The very point is paralleled in the Acts of Thomas, ch. xlviii. A youth who has murdered his See also:mistress takes the bread of the Eucharist in his mouth,- and his two hands are at once withered up. The apostle immediately invites him to confess the See also:crime he must have committed, " for, he says, the Eucharist of the Lord hath convicted thee." It has been necessary to consider at such length St Paul's account of the Eucharist, both because it antedates nearly by half a century that of the gospels, and because it explains the significance which the rite had no less for the Gnostics than for the See also:great church. The synoptists' account is to be understood thus: Jesus, conscious that he now for the last time lies down to eat with his disciples a meal which, if not the Paschal, was any-how anticipatory of the Millennial Regeneration (Matt. xix. 28), institutes, as it were, a blood-brotherhood between himself and them. It is a covenant similar to that of See also:Exodus xxiv., when after the peace-offering of oxen, Moses took the blood in basins and sprinkled half of it on the altar and on twelve pillars erected after the twelve tribes, and the other half on the people, to whom he had first read out the writing of the covenant and said, " Behold the blood of the covenant which the Lord hath made with you concerning all these words." But the covenant instituted by Jesus on the See also:eve of his death was hardly intended as a new covenant with God, superseding the old. This reconstruction of its meaning seems to have been the See also:peculiar See also:revelation of the Lord to Paul, who viewed Christ's crucifixion and death as an atoning sacrifice, liberating by its grace mankind from bonds of sin which the law, far from snap-ping, only made more sensible and grievous. This must have been the gist of the See also:special revelation which he had received from Christ as to the inner character of a supper which he already found a ritual observance among believers. The Eucharist,of the synoptists is rather a covenant or tie of communion between Jesus and the twelve, such as will cause his life to survive in them after he has been parted from them in the fleshy. An older prophet would have slain an animal and drunk its blood in common with his followers, or they would all alike have smeared themselves with it. In the East, even now, one who wishes to create a blood tie between himself and his followers and cement them to himself, makes under his left See also:breast an incision from which they each in turn suck his blood. Such-barbarism was alien to the spirit of the Founder, who substitutes bread and wine for his own flesh and blood, only imparting to these his owh quality by the declaration that they are himself. He broke the bread not in token of his approaching death, but in order to its equal See also:distribution. Wine he rather See also:chose than water as a surrogate for his actual blood, because it already in - Hebrew sacrifices passed as such. " The See also:Hebrews," says Robertson Smith (op. cit. p. 230), " treated it like the blood, pouring it out at the See also:base of the altar." As a red liquid it was a ready symbol of the blood which is the life. It was itself the covenant, for the genitive rIs &aO,no s in Mark xiv. 24 is epexegetic, and Luke and Paul rightly substitute the nominative. It was, as J. See also:Wellhausen remarks,' a better cement than the bread, because through the drinking of it the very blood of Jesus coursed through the See also:veins of the disciples, and that is why more stress is laid on it than on the bread. To the apostles, as Jews bred and See also:born, the action and words of their See also:master formed a solemn and 1 Das Evangelium Marci, p. 121. See also:family. To the See also:modern mind it is absurd that an See also:image or symbol should be taken for that which is imaged or symbolized, and that is why the early history of the Eucharist has been so little understood by ecclesiastical writers. And yet other religions, ancient and modern, See also:supply many parallels, which are considered in the article SACRAMENT. AuT110RITIEs.-Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites; See also:Goetz, Die Abendmahlsfrage; G. Anrich, Das antike Mysterienwesen (See also:Gottingen, 1894); Sylloge confessionum (See also:Oxford, 1804); Duchesne, Origins of Christian Culture; Funk's edition of Constitutiones Apostolicae; Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, vol. ii.; Geo. Bickell, Messe and Pascha; idem. " Die Entstehung der Liturgie," Ztsch. f. Kath. Theol. iv. Jahrg. 94 (188o), p. 90 (shows how the prayers of the Christian sacramentaries derive from the Jewish See also:Synagogue) ; Goar, Rituale Graecorum; F. E. Brightman, Eastern Liturgies; Cabrol and Leclercq, Monumenta liturgica, reliquiae liturgicae vetustissimae (See also:Paris, 1900); Harnack, History of See also:Dogma; Jas. See also:Martineau, Seat of Authority in Religion, bk. iv. (See also:London, 189o) ; Loofs, art. " Abendmahlsfeier " in See also:Herzog's 's Realencyklopadie (1896.) See also:Spitta, Urchristentum (Gottingen, 189 ; Schultzen, Das Abendmahl See also:im N.T. (Gottingen, 1895) ; Kraus, Real-Encykl. d. christl. Altert. (for the See also:Archaeology); art. " Eucharistic "; Ch. See also:Gore, See also:Dissertations (1895); See also:Hoffmann, Die Abendmahlsgedanken Jesu Christi (See also:Konigsberg, 1896) ; Sanday, art. " Lord's Supper " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; Th. Harnack, Der christl. Gemeindegottesdienst. (F. C. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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