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patience; he had slowly modified his views, and his tendencies were now eagerly claimed by the few remaining Federalists as identical with their own. The nationalizing See also:

FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons combined for action, facere, to do; from the other French derivative facon comes " fashion ")

faction of the dominant party had scored almost See also:

election all the successes of the See also:

ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration, and the of1824. divergence between it and the opposing faction was steadily becoming more apparent. All the candidates for the See also:

PRESIDENCY

presidency in 1824—Andrew See also:

Jackson, a private See also:

CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen of See also:

TENNESSEE

Tennessee; See also:

William H.

See also:

Crawford, Monroe's secretary of the See also:

TREASURY

treasury; See also:

John See also:

Quincy See also:

Adams, his secretary of See also:

state; and See also:

Henry See also:

Clay, the See also:

SPEAKER

speaker of the See also:

House of Representatives—claimed to be Republicans alike; but the See also:

PERSONAL

personal nature of the struggle was shown by the tendency of their supporters to See also:

CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call themselves " Adams men " or " Jackson men," rather than by any real party See also:

TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title. See also:

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL (1782-185o)

Calhoun was supported by all See also:

groups for the See also:

VICE

vice-presidency, and was elected without difficulty. The choice of a See also:

PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president was more doubtful. 16o. None of the four candidates had anything like a party organization behind him. Adams and Clay represented the Party nationalizing See also:

ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element, as Crawford and Jackson Divergence. did not; but there the likeness among them stopped. The strongest forces behind Adams were the new manufacturing and commercial interests of the See also:

East; behind Clay were the desires of the West for See also:

INTERNAL

internal improvements at Federal expense as a set-off to the benefits which the seaboard states had already received from the See also:

government; and the two elements were soon to be united into the See also:

NATIONAL

National Republican or Whig party (q.v.). Crawford was the representative of the old Democratic party, with all its See also:

SOUTHERN

Southern influences and leanings. Jackson was the personification of the new democracy—not very cultured, perhaps, but honest, and hating every shade of class See also:

CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control instinctively. As he became better known the whole force of the new See also:

DRIFT (from "drive ")

drift of things turned in his direction. Crawford was taken out of the See also:

RACE

race, just after the See also:

ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

electors had See also:

CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast their votes, by See also:

PHYSICAL

physical failure, and Adams, later, by the revival of See also:

ancient quarrels with the Federalists of New See also:

England; and the future was to be with Clay or with Jackson. But in 1824 the electors gave no one a See also:

MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority; and the House of Representatives, voting by states, gave the presidency to Adams.

161. Adams's election in 1825 was due to the fact that Clay's See also:

friends in the House—unable to See also:

VOTE

vote for him, as he was the The Adams lowest in the electoral vote, and only three names Administra- were open to choice in the House—very naturally gave tion 1825- their votes to Adams. As Adams appointed Clay 29. to the leading position in his See also:

CABINET

cabinet, the defeated party at once raised the cry of " bargain and intrigue," one of the most effective in a See also:

DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy, and it was kept up through-out Adams's four years of office. Jackson had received the largest number of electoral votes, though not a majority,' and the hazy notion that he had been injured because of his devotion to the See also:

PEOPLE

people increased his popularity. Though demagogues made use of it for selfish purposes, this feeling was an honest one, and Adams had nothing to oppose to it. He tried vigorously to uphold the " See also:

AMERICAN

American See also:

SYSTEM

system," and succeeded in passing the See also:

TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff of 1828; he tried to maintain the See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the United States on both the American continents; but he remained as unpopular as his See also:

RIVAL

rival See also:

GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew popular. In 1828 Adams was easily displaced by Jackson, the electoral vote being 178 to 83. Calhoun was re-elected vice-president. 162. Jackson's inauguration in 1829 closes this See also:

period, as it ends the See also:

time during which a disruption of the See also:

Union by the Election of peaceable withdrawal of any state was even possible. 1828. De- The party which had made state See also:

SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty its mocracy and See also:

BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark in 1798 was now in control of the govern-See also:

NATIONALITY

Nationality. ment again; but Jackson's See also:

PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation in his first term, in which he warned South Carolina that " disunion by armed force is See also:

TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason," and that See also:

BLOOD

blood must flow if the See also:

LAWS

laws were resisted, speaks a very different See also:

TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone from the speculations of ' Jackson received 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37; in the House of Representatives Adams received the votes of 13 states, Jackson of 7, and Crawford of 4.

For vice-president Calhoun received 182 electoral votes, and his See also:

PRINCIPAL

principal competitors, Nathan Sanford, of New See also:

York, and Nathaniel See also:

Macon, of North Carolina, received 30 and 24 respectively. See also:

Jefferson on possible future divisions of the United States. And even the sudden See also:

ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt of South Carolina to exercise See also:

INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

ACTION

action (§§ 172-173) shows that some See also:

INTEREST

interest dependent upon state sovereignty had taken alarm at the drift of events, and was anxious to See also:

lodge a claim to the right before it should slip from its fingers for ever. See also:

NULLIFICATION

Nullification was only the first skirmish between the two hostile forces of See also:

SLAVERY

slavery and democracy. 163. When the vast territory of Louisiana was acquired in 1803 the new owner found slavery already established there by See also:

CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom recognized by See also:

French and See also:

SPANISH

Spanish See also:

law. Slavery. See also:

CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress tacitly ratified existing law by taking no action; slavery continued legal, and spread further through the territory; and the state of Louisiana entered as a slave state in 1812. The next state to be carved out of the territory was See also:

MISSOURI

Missouri, admitted in 1821. A Territory, on applying for See also:

ADMISSION

admission as a state, brings a constitution for inspection by Congress; and when it was found that the new state of Missouri proposed to recognize and continue slavery, a vigorous opposition spread through the North and West, and carried most of the senators and representatives from those sections with it. In the House of Representatives these two sections had a greatly See also:

SUPERIOR

superior number of members; but, as the number of Northern and Southern states had been kept about equal, the compact Southern vote, with one or two Northern See also:

ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies, generally retained control of the See also:

SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

Senate. Admitted by the Senate and rejected by the House, Missouri's application hung suspended for two years until it was successful by the admission of See also:

Maine, a balancing Northern state,2 and by the following arrangement, known as the Missouri The Missouri See also:

COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

Compromise of 182o: Missouri was to enter as a compromise. slave state; slavery was for ever prohibited through- out the See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the Louisiana See also:

PURCHASE

Purchase north of lat.

36° 3o', the See also:

main southern boundary of Missouri; and, though nothing was said of the territory south of the compromise line, it was understood that any state formed out of it was to be a slave state, if it so wished (see MISSOURI COMPROMISE and See also:

MISSOULA

Missoula, § History). See also:

ARKANSAS

Arkansas entered under this See also:

PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision in 1836. 164. The question of slavery was thus set at rest for the present, though a few See also:

AGITATORS, or ADJUTATORS

agitators were roused to more zealous opposition to the essence of slavery itself. In the next See also:

DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade these agitators succeeded only in the See also:

CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of sectional Divergence. a few recruits, but these recruits were the ones who took up the See also:

WORK

work at the opening of the next period and never gave it up until slavery was ended. It is See also:

PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain now, however, that North and South had already drifted so far apart as to See also:

FORM (Lat. forma)

form two sections, and it became evident during the next See also:

FORTY

forty years that the wants and desires of these two sections were so divergent that it was impossible for one government to make satisfactory laws for both. The See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief cause was not removed in 1820, though one of its effects was got out of the way for the time. 165. The vast See also:

flood of human beings which had been pouring westward for years had now See also:

PRETTY

pretty well occupied the territory east of the See also:

MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi, while, on the west See also:

side of that stream, it still showed a disposition to hold to the See also:

AREA

Area. The settled See also:

RIVER

river valleys. The settled area had increased from 240,000 sq. m. in 1790 to 633,000 sq. m. in 1830, with an See also:

AVERAGE

average of 2o•3 persons to the square mile.

There was still a great See also:

DEAL

deal of See also:

INDIAN

Indian territory in the Southern states of See also:

GEORGIA

Georgia, See also:

ALABAMA

Alabama, Mississippi, and See also:

FLORIDA

Florida, for the Southern See also:

INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians were among the finest of their race; they had become semi-civilized, and were formidable antagonists to the encroaching See also:

white race. The states interested had begun preparations for their forcible removal, in public See also:

DEFIANCE

defiance (see GEORGIA: History) of the attempts of the Federal government to protect the Indians (1827); but the removal was not completed until 1835. In the North, See also:

Wisconsin and See also:

Michigan, with the northern halves of See also:

ILLINOIS

Illinois and See also:

INDIANA

Indiana, were still very thinly settled, but everything indicated See also:

early increase of See also:

POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population. The first See also:

lake steamboat, the " Walk-in-the-See also:

WATER

Water," had appeared at See also:

DETROIT

Detroit in 1818, and the opening of the See also:

ERIE

Erie See also:

Canal in 1825 added to the number 2 A prompt admission of Missouri would have balanced the slave and See also:

FREE

free states, but Alabama's admission as a slave state balanced them in 1819. of such vessels. Lake Erie had seven in 1826; and in 183o, while the only important lake See also:

TOWN

town, Detroit, was The steamboat. hardly more than a frontier fort, a daily line of yet ' steamers was See also:

RUNNING

running to it from See also:

BUFFALO

Buffalo, carrying the increasing stream of emigrants to the western territory. 166. The See also:

LAND

land system of the United States had much to do with the early development of the West. From the first See also:

settlement, the universally recognized See also:

RULE

rule had been that of See also:

ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute individual See also:

PROPERTY

property in land, with its corollary of unrestricted competitive or " See also:

RACK

rack " rents; and this rule was accepted fully in the national land system, whose basis was reported by Jefferson, as chairman of a See also:

COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of the See also:

CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

Confederation Congress (1785). The public lands were to be divided into "hundreds" each ten See also:

MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles square and containing one See also:

HUNDRED

hundred mile-square plots. The hundred was called a " township," and was afterwards reduced to six miles square, of See also:

THIRTY

thirty-six mile-square plots of 64o acres each. From time to time principal meridians and east and west See also:

BASE

base lines have been run, and townships,have been determined by their relations to these lines.

The sections (plots) have been sub-divided, but the See also:

TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer describes each See also:

PARCEL (Fr. parcelle, Ital. particella, Lat. particela, diminutive of pars, part)

parcel from the survey See also:

map, as in the See also:

case of " the south-west See also:

QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of See also:

section 20, township 30, north, range 1 east of the third principal See also:

meridian." The See also:

price fixed in 1790 as a minimum was $2 per See also:

acre; it has tended to decrease, and no effort has ever been made to gain a See also:

revenue from it. When the nation acquired its western territory it secured its title to the See also:

SOIL

soil, and always made it a fundamental See also:

CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the admission of a new state that it should not tax United States lands. To compensate the new states for the freedom of unsold public lands from See also:

taxation, one township in each thirty-six was reserved to them for educational purposes; and the excellent public school systems of the Western states have been founded on this provision. The cost of obtaining a quarter section (16o acres), under the still later See also:

HOMESTEAD

homestead system of granting lands to actual settlers, has come to be only about $26; the interest on this, at 6%, represents an See also:

ANNUAL

annual See also:

RENT

rent of one cent per acre—making this, says F. A. See also:

Walker, as nearly as possible the " no-rent land " of the economists. 167. The bulk of the early westward See also:

MIGRATION

migration was of See also:

home See also:

PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production; the great See also:

IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration from See also:

EUROPE

Europe did not begin until about 1847. The West as well as the East thus had its institutions fixed before being called upon to absorb an enormous See also:

FOREIGN

foreign element. I.—Industrial Development and Sectional Divergence, 1829-1850. 168. The eight years 1829–1837 have been called " the reign of See also:

Andrew Jackson "; his popularity, his See also:

long struggle for the New presidency, and his feeling of his See also:

OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official ownership See also:

POLITICAL

Political of the subordinate offices gave to his administration Methods. at least an See also:

APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of Caesarism.

But it was a strictly constitutional Caesarism; the restraints of written law were never violated, though the methods adopted within the law were new to national politics. Since about "Boo state politics in New York and See also:

Pennsylvania had been noted for the systematic use of the offices and for the merciless manner in which the office-holder was compelled to work for the party which kept him in See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place. The presence of New York and Pennsylvania politicians in Jackson's cabinet taught him to use the same system. Removals, except for cause, had been relatively rare before; but under Jackson men were removed almost exclusively for the purpose of installing some more serviceable party See also:

TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool; and a clean sweep was made in the See also:

CIVIL

civil service. Other parties adopted the system, and it remained the rule at a See also:

CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of administration until comparatively See also:

RECENT

recent years. 16g. The system brought with it a semi-military reorganization of parties. Hitherto nominations for the more important The New offices had been made mainly by legislative caucuses; organiza- candidates for -president and vice-president were See also:

Lion of nominated by caucuses of congressmen, and candi- Parties. See also:

DATES

dates for the higher state offices by caucuses of the state legislatures. See also:

LATE

Late in the preceding period " conventions " of delegates from the members of the party in the state were held in New York and Pennsylvania; and in 1831–1832 this became the rule for presidential nominations. It rapidly See also:

DEVELOPED

developed into systematic state, See also:

COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county, and See also:

CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city" conventions "; and the result was the appearance of that See also:

COMPLETE

complete political machinery, the American political party, with its See also:

LOCAL

local organizations, and its delegates to county, state and national conventions. The Democratic machinery was the first to appear, in Jackson's second term (1833–1837). Its workers were paid in offices, or hopes of office, so that it was said to be built on the " cohesive power of public See also:

PLUNDER

plunder "; but its success was immediate and brilliant.

The opposing party, the Whig party (q.v.), had no See also:

CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of victory in 1836; and its complete overthrow drove its leaders into the organization of a similar machinery of their own, which scored its first success in 1840. Since that time these See also:

STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange bodies, unknown to the law, have governed the country by turns; and their enormous growth has steadily made the organization of a third piece of such machinery more difficult or hopeless. 170. The See also:

BANK

Bank of the United States had hardly been heard of in politics until the new Democratic organization came into hostile contact with it. A semi-official demand Bank of the upon it for a political See also:

APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment was met by a united refusal; and the party managers called Jackson's States. See also:

ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to an institution which he could not but dislike the more he considered it. His first See also:

MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message spoke of it in unfriendly terms, and every succeeding message brought a more open attack. The old party of Adams and Clay had by this time taken the name of Whigs, probably from the notion that they were struggling against " the reign of Andrew Jackson," and they adopted the cause of the bank with eagerness. The bank See also:

CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter did not expire until 1836, but in 1832 Clay brought up a See also:

BILL

bill for a new charter. It was passed and vetoed; and the Whigs made the See also:

VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto an important issue of the presidential election of that See also:

YEAR

year. They were beaten; Jackson was re-elected, receiving 219 electoral votes, and Clay, his Whig opponent, only 49, and the bank party could never again get a majority in the House of Representatives for the charter. The insistence of the president on the point that the charter was a " See also:

MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly " See also:

BORE

bore See also:

WEIGHT

weight with the people. But the president could not obtain a majority in the Senate.

He determined to take a step which would give him an initiative, and which his opponents could not induce both houses to unite in overriding or punishing. Taking See also:

ADVANTAGE

advantage of the provision that the secretary of the treasury might See also:

order the Removal public funds to be deposited elsewhere than in the of the bank or its branches, he directed the secretary to, Deposits. See also:

DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit all the public funds elsewhere. Thus deprived of its great source of dividends, the bank See also:

fell into difficulties, became a state bank after 1836, and then went into See also:

BANKRUPTCY (from Lat. bancus or Fr. banquet table or counter, and Lat. ruptus, broken)

bankruptcy.

End of Article: DOCTRINE

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