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MICHIGAN
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MICHIGAN , a See also:north central See also:state of the See also:United States, situated between latitudes 41° 44' and 470 30' N.1 and longitudes 82° 25' and 90° 31' W., and consisting of two peninsulas—the upper or See also:northern and the See also:lower or See also:southern—separated by a strait. The upper or northern See also:peninsula is bounded N. by See also:Lake See also:Superior; E. by lakes Superior, See also:George, See also:Huron, and Michigan, and by St See also:Mary's See also:River, which separates it from the See also:Province of See also:Ontario, See also:Canada; S. by lakes Huron and Michigan and the Straits of Mackinac, which See also:separate it from the lower peninsula; and S. and W. by See also:Wisconsin, and the See also:Menominee, See also:Montreal and Brule See also:Rivers, which separate it in See also:part from Wisconsin. The lower or southern peninsula is bounded N. by lakes Michigan and Huron and the Straits of Mackinac, E. by lakes Huron, St Clair and See also:Erie, and the St Clair and See also:Detroit Rivers, which separate it from Ontario; S. by See also:Ohio and See also:Indiana, and W. by Lake Michigan. In See also:size Michigan ranks eighteenth among the states of the See also:Union, its See also:total See also:area being 57,980 sq. m., of which 500 sq. m. are See also:water See also:surface? See also:Physical Features.-Physiographically the See also:history of the state is similar to that of See also:Minnesota. The northern part is rugged mountainous " old See also:land," not completely worn down by erosion; and the southern part is a portion of the old coastal See also:plain, whose layers contain See also:salt, See also:gypsum and some inferior See also:coal. Lake Huron on the See also:east and Lake Michigan on the See also:west of the lower peninsula are each 5811 ft. above See also:sea-level, and Lake Superior on the north of the upper peninsula is 6o2 ft. above sea-level. For the most part the surface of the state is gently undulating and at a slight See also:elevation above the lakes, but See also:low See also:marsh lands are See also:common to many sections; the north part of the lower peninsula is occupied by a See also:plateau of considerable dimensions, and the north-west part of the upper peninsula is rugged with hills and mountains. See also:Crossing the lower peninsula from See also:Saginaw See also:Bay west by See also:south through the valleys of the Saginaw, See also:Maple and See also:Grand rivers, is a depression—the former channel of an old glacial river—in which elevations for a considerable area are less than too ft. above the lakes. To the south-east of this depression a water-parting with summits varying from about 400 to 600 ft. above the lakes extends from a point between Saginaw Bay and Lake Huron south by west to the south border of the state and beyond. The east slope descends quite rapidly to a low See also:flat See also:belt from g to 40 M. wide along the east border of the state south from Lake Huron. From Lake Huron to the south-east See also:shore of Saginaw Bay a wide sandy See also:beach is followed northward by precipitous shores abounding in rocks and bluffs. West of the See also:divide and south of the depression, south-west Michigan is occupied by, the valleys of the St See also:Joseph, See also:Kalamazoo and Grand rivers, by the gently See also:rolling uplands that See also:form the parting divides between them, and by See also:sand See also:dunes, which here and there rise to a height of from too to 200 ft. or more along the shore of Lake Michigan, and are formed on this See also:side (but not on the Wisconsin side) of the lake by the,prevailing west winds. The north and north-west portions of the lower peninsula—including the counties of See also:Roscommon and Missaukee, parts of See also:Wexford and Ogemaw, and those to the north and north-west of these—are occupied by a rolling plateau which attains an elevation at its highest point, north of its centre, of upwards of ttoo ft. above Lake Michigan; to the south of this plateau the land slopes gently down to the depression and to the low shores of Lake Michigan and Saginaw Bay. The surface of the upper
1 This is the northernmost point of the mainland; the most northerly of the islands north-east of Isle Royal and belonging to Michigan is more than 40' further north.
2 In addition, within the boundaries of Michigan, are approximately 16,653 sq. m. of Lake_ Superior, 12,992 sq. m. of Lake Michigan, 9925 sq. m. of Lake Huron and 46o sq. m. of lakes St Clair and Erie.
peninsula is more irregular than that of the lower peninsula. A portion extending through the See also:middle from east to west and south, from west of the centre to See also:Green Bay, is either flat and even swampy or only gently undulating. Eastward from Green Bay are two ranges of hills: the one lining the south shore and ranging from too to 300 ft. in height, the other See also:close to or touching the north shore and reaching in places an elevation of 600 ft. above Lake Superior. .The famous Pictured Rocks in See also:Alger See also:county on the lake shore, east of Munising, form the west portion of this north range; they are of See also:sandstone formation, extend for several See also:miles along the See also:coast, rise almost perpendicularly from the water's edge, and display an interesting diversity of shapes as well as a See also:great variety of tints and hues, especially of See also: Extending in a See also:general north-east and south-west direction through Keweenaw peninsula to the Wisconsin border and beyond is the middle of three approximately parallel ranges, separated from,'each other by flat lands, with here and there an isolated peak (in the Porcupine Mountains) having an elevation of from 900 to 1400 ft. above the lake. The north portion of these ranges, together with Isle Royale some distance farther north, which is itself traversed by several less elevated parallel ridges, contains the Michigan See also:copper-bearing rocks; while to the south, along the Wisconsin border, is another iron district, the Gogebic. The rivers of the entire state consist of numerous small streams of clear water. In the interior of the upper peninsula, along the east border of the Iower peninsula south from Lake Huron, and in Saginaw valley, they are rather sluggish; but many of the larger streams of the lower peninsula have sufficient fall to furnish a large amount of water-See also:power, while the small streams that flow into Lake Superior from the central portion of the upper peninsula as well as some of the larger ones farther west, have several falls and rapids; in places also they are lined with steep, high See also:banks. Most of the larger rivers of the state—the See also:Muskegon, Grand, St Joseph, See also:Manistee and Kalamazoo—are in the west portion of the lower peninsula. Several thousand lakes of clear water, formed by glacial See also:action, dot the surface of the state, and many of them are lined with picturesque woodland shores. Islands in lakes Superior, Michigan and Huron are scarcely less numerous.
See also:Fauna and See also:Flora.—Michigan, especially the north portion, still abounds in See also:game. The mammals include See also:black See also:bear, See also:deer, See also:lynx,
porcupine, See also:fox, squirrels, See also:hares, rabbits, See also:musk rats, minks, weasels, skunks and woodchucks. Among the game birds are quails (" Bob See also: The speckled trout thrives in many of the streams. Before it was settled by the whites the area now included in Michigan was a See also:forest, except in the south-west, where there were a few small prairies, possibly cleared by the See also:Indians. The See also:remainder of the south part of this area for about 6o m. along the southern boundary was a part of the great hardwood forest of the Ohio See also:Basin with See also:woods varying with See also:soil and drainage: on the drier See also:gravel lands were See also:oak forests consisting of red, black and white oak, See also:hickory, ash, See also:cherry, basswood and See also:walnut; in depressions there were maple, See also:elm, ash, See also:beech, sycamore, See also:poplar and See also:willow; and in the south-east there were a few chestnuts and See also:tulip trees. North of this southern hardwood forest there were See also:pine forests on the sandier land, mixed hardwoods and conifers on the See also:loam and See also:clay, and tamaracks and See also:cedar in the swamps. The sandy lands were in part burnt over by Indians, and there was. a growth of scrub oak, aspens and See also:huckleberry bushes. The tamarack and cedar swamps now have a growth, especially on their edges, of spruce, See also:balsam, white pine, soft maple, ash and aspens. In 1909 about 25 % of the area was " cut over " or " burned over " lands, mostly the old pine woods, the region of the old hardwood forest was almost entirely farmland, and about 40 % of the state was still in woods. Red oak, See also:birch, elm, ash, white cedar, See also:hemlock, basswood, spruce, poplar, balsam, See also:fir and several other kinds of trees are found in many sections; but a large portion of the merchantable See also:timber, especially in the lower peninsula, has been cut' Among forest shrubs are the willow, See also:hazel, See also:alder, See also:shrub maple, birch, See also:hawthorn, See also:dogwood, elderberry, See also:viburnum and snowberry. Yews are common in the north, and See also:dwarf See also:juniper in the south. In 1900 the woodland area, including stump lands, was estimated at 38,000 sq. m., or nearly two-thirds of the entire state. Huckleberry, See also:blackberry and rasp-See also:berry bushes are common in the north sections. Smilax, See also:clematis, See also:honeysuckle and woodbine are the commoner forest vines. Under the revised constitution of 1908 the legislature is authorized to provide for the reforestation of state lands. Soil.—The soil of south-west and south-east Michigan is for the most part a dark clay loam or muck; in the north central part of the lower peninsula it is a See also:light sandy loam, along the Huron shore it is heavy with blue clay, in the See also:mining districts of the north-west the rocks are usually either barren or very thinly covered; and else-where in the state the soil is generally See also:rich in a variety of See also:mineral elements, and varies chiefly in the proportions of See also:vegetable loam, sand or gravel, and clay. See also:Climate.—Although the temperature of the entire lower peninsula is considerably influenced by the lakes, yet, the prevailing winds being See also:westerly, it is in the west portion of that peninsula that the moderation is greatest, both the summer and See also:winter isotherms being there deflected more than See also:half the length of the peninsula. On the other See also:hand, the prevailing winds of the upper peninsula being north-westerly, the lakes have little effect on the temperature there; and so, while in the south-west the extremes are not great, in the See also:rest of the state they have ranged within two years from 104° F. at points in the south-east to 490 F. in the north-west. Throughout the state See also:July is invariably the warmest See also:month, See also:February the coldest, the mean See also:annual temperature is about 45° F. The mean annual precipitation is not far from 31 in., a little more than one-half of which falls during the five growing months from May to See also:October; the See also:rain is evenly distributed over all parts of the state, but the See also:snow is exceptionally heavy along the north shore of the upper peninsula. Productions.--Of the total land surface of the state in 1900 18.08 % (in 1904, 47'1 %) was included in farms and 67.2 % (in 1904, 66'9 %) of the See also:farm land was improved; the total number of farms was 203,261 (in 1904, 189,167), of which 143,688 contained less than See also:loo acres, 54,556 others contained less than 26o acres, and 136 contained See also:tow acres or more, the See also:average size being 86'4 acres (in 1904, 91'5 acres). Of the total number of farms 168,814 were operated by the owners (in 1904, 161,037 by owners and 914 by managers), 22,482 (in 1904, 19,525) by See also:share tenants, 9731 (in 1904, 7685) by See also:cash tenants; and 312,462 of the inhabitants of the state, or 34' 5 %of all who were engaged in gainful occupations, were farmers. Of the total acreage in 1900 of all crops 58'3 % was in cereals and 28'8 % in See also:hay and See also:forage; of the acreage of cereals 40'8 % was in See also:wheat, 31 ' 8 %inIndian See also:corn, 21'6%in oats and3'7% in See also:rye. In 1907 the See also:buckwheat See also:crop was 852,000 bushels; rye, 5,452,000 bushels; the hay crop, 3,246,000 tons; oats, 30,534,000 bushels; See also:barley, 1,496,000 bushels; wheat 12,731,000 bushels; and See also:Indian corn 57,190,000 bushels. Of livestock, See also:sheep are the most numerous (2,130,000 in 1907), and Michigan's See also:wool clip in 1907 was 14,080,500 lb. The number of neat See also:cattle in 1907 was 1,852,000 (849,000 See also:dairy cows). The number of hogs was 1,388,000; and of horses 704,000. Michigan produces the bulk of the See also:peppermint crop of the United States, and it is in the front See also:rank as a See also:fruit-producing state. Barley and buckwheat are grown chiefly in the east part of the lower peninsula south of Saginaw Bay. Potatoes are grown in considerable quantities in the north-west part of the lower peninsula in the vicinity of Grand See also:Traverse Bay as well as throughout the southern portion of the state; the largest crops of beans are grown in the south central part of the lower peninsula, and of peas in the counties bordering on Lake Huron. Kalamazoo, See also:Jackson, Washtenaw, Lenawee, See also:Ingham, Bay and Muskegon are the leading See also:celery-producing counties; the peppermint district is in the south-west corner of the state; and See also:market gardening is an important See also:industry both in the south-west and in the south-east counties. All the See also:principal fruits are grown in largest quantities in what is commonly known as the fruit belt in the south-west, particularly in Berrien, the corner county. The fresh-water fish caught in the Great Lakes by residents in Michigan exceed in value those caught by residents of other states, and in 1907 the catch was valued at $1,806,767. Nearly one-half both in quantity and value are taken from Lake Michigan, and, although as many as twenty kinds are caught in considerable quantities, more than 90 % of the value of the catch consists of trout, herring, white fish and perch. Both the state See also:government and the See also:national government have established hatcheries within the state, and state See also:laws protect the industry by regulating the size of mesh in the nets used, prescribing the size of fish that may be taken and kept, establishing close seasons for several kinds of fish, and by other limitations. Minerals.—Of the mineral products (for which the state is noted) iron is the most valuable. This mineral was discovered in the Marquette district along the shore of Lake Superior See also:early in the 18th See also:century, but active operations for mining it did not begin until 1845; in 1877 mining of the same mineral began farther south in the Menominee district, and seven years later farther west along the Wisconsin border in Gogebic county. The annual product steadily increased from 3oo0long tons in 1854 to 11,830,342 in 1907; from 1890 to 1901 Michigan ranked first in the union as an iron-producing state, but after 1901 its product was exceeded by that of Minnesota. Up to 1909 it was estimated that 380,417,085 tons of ore were shipped from the Lake Superior region. Next in value among the mineral products is copper; there are about twenty copper mines in Keweenaw peninsula and its vicinity. The See also:Calumet and Hecla mine, in the central part of that peninsula, is probably the most profitable copper mine in the See also:world; up to 1909 it had paid about $107,850,000 in dividends. Copper mining in the state began about the same See also:time as iron mining, and the quantity See also:mined increased from 12 See also:long tons in 1845 to 102,543 in 1906 (in 1907, 97,175 long tons). From 1847 to 1887 the product of Michigan exceeded that of any other state; from 1847 to 1883 its copper product was more than one-half that of all the states, but after 1887 (except in 1891) more of that mineral was mined in See also:Montana than in Michigan, and in 1906 and in 1907 the yield in both See also:Arizona and Montana was greater than in Michigan. See also:Fields of bituminous coal extend over an area of over 10,000 sq. m. in the central portion of the lower peninsula; but its quality is inferior. The mining of coal began in Jackson county in 1835 and there was a slow increase in the output until 1882 (135,339 See also:short tons) ; then there was a tendency to decrease until 1897, from which time the product increased from 223,592 short tons to 2,035,858 short tons in 1907, The principal mines are in Saginaw, Bay, .See also:Eaton, Jackson, Huron and Shiawassee counties. Salt See also:wells are numerous in the middle and south-east sections of the lower peninsula; the first successful one was drilled in Saginaw county in 1859 and 1860. For a number of years See also:prior to 1893 Michigan was the leading salt-producing state, and, though her output was subsequently (except in 1901) exceeded by that of New See also:York, it continued to increase up to 1905, when it was 9,492,173 barrels; in 1907, the product was 10,786,630 barrels. Gypsum is obtained from deposits along the banks of the Grand river in See also:Kent county and in the vicinity of See also:Alabaster along the shore of Lake Huron in Iosco county. Operations on the See also:deposit near Grand Rapids were begun in 1841, and although that near Alabaster was opened in 1862, it was not until 1902 that it became of much importance; in that See also:year the output of the state was 208,563 short tons; in 1907 317,261 short tons were mined. See also:Marl is found in the south part of the state; See also:limestone most largely in the north part of the lower peninsula, and the east part of the upper peninsula; and the See also:production of See also:Portland See also:cement increased rapidly from 77,000 barrels in 1898 to 3,572,668 in 1907. Besides limestones and See also:dolomites, the only See also:building See also: Communications.—The building of See also:railways in Michigan began in 183o, but little progress had been made in 1837 when the state began the construction of three railways and two canals across the south half of the lower peninsula. The Michigan Central was completed from Detroit to See also:Ypsilanti in See also:January 1838, a portion of the Michigan Southern was in operation in See also:November 1840, and considerable work was done on the proposed Michigan Northern and the two canals. By 1846, however, the state had proved itself incompetent to carry on the work and sold its interests to private companies. In 1850 there were 342 m. completed, and from then until 188o the mileage increased to 3938; but the great period of railway building in Michigan was in the.See also:decade from 188o to 1890, when the mileage was increased to 7108.48. By the close of 1908 it had further increased to 8629'35. The principal lines are the Michigan Central, the Pere Marquette, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the See also:Ann Arbor, the Grand See also:Trunk, the See also:Chicago & North-Western, the See also:Duluth South Shore & See also:Atlantic, the Minneapolis, St See also:Paul & Sault Ste. See also:Marie, and the Chicago, See also:Milwaukee & St Paul. A See also:board of railway commissioners, which in 1907 succeeded a See also:commissioner (whose See also:office was created in 1873) hears complaints, has power to issue various orders and permits of See also:minor importance to railway companies, and reports annually to the See also:governor.2 The legislature is empowered to appoint a See also:commission to See also:fix transportation rates for railways and See also:express companies. Besides railway communication Michigan has a coast See also:line of about 1600 rp., along which vessels of 2000 tons can See also:sail and find several See also:good harbours, the water communication having been extended and improved by several canals, among which are the Sault Ste. Marie, which passes the rapids of St Mary's River; the St Clair Flats, at the north end of Lake St Clair, by which a deeper channel is made through shallow water; and the See also:Portage Lake, in the copper district, which connects that lake with Lake Superior. The state undertook to construct that at Sault Ste. Marie in 1837 but little had been accomplished in 1852 when the national government granted 750,000 acres of land to the state in aid of the enterprise, and three years after that the See also:canal was completed. Since its completion, the national government has enlarged its locks so as to make it navigable for vessels See also:drawing 21 ft. of water. The national government constructed the canal at the St Clair Flats in 1871 and contributed land for aid in the construction of that connecting lakes Portage and Superior, which was completed in 1873 and passed under national See also:control in 1891.
See also:Population.—The population of Michigan in 188o was 1,636,937; in 1890 it was 2,093,889, an increase of 27.9% within the decade; in 1900 it was 2,420,982, a further increase of 15.6% and in 191o, according to the preliminary returns of the U.S. census, it was 2,810,173. Of the total population in 190o, 2,398,563 or 99.07% were whites, 15,861 were negroes, 6354 were Indians, 240 were See also:Chinese, and 9 were See also:Japanese. 1,879,329 or 77.6% were native See also:born and 541,653 were See also:foreign-born, 184,398 of the foreign-born being natives of Canada (151,915 See also:English; 32,483 See also:French), 125,074 of See also:Germany, 43,839 of See also:England, and 30,406 of See also: When this question was so submitted for the first time, in 1866, the vote was to revise; but the revision prepared by a See also:convention called for the purpose was rejected at the polls The revision by the Constitutional Convention of 1907-1908 was adopted by popular vote in 1908.
In its See also:present form the constitution confers See also:suffrage upon every male See also:citizen of the United States who is twenty-one years of See also:age or over and has resided in the state six months and in his township or See also: All legislation must be by bill, legislation by joint and concurrent resolutions thus being prevented. No bill may be passed at a See also:regular session until it has been printed and in See also:possession of each house for five days; no bill may be passed at a special session on any subject not expressly stated in the governor's See also:proclamation or submitted by special See also:message. The governor has ten days (Sundays not being counted) in which to exercise his See also:veto power (which may be applied to any See also:item or items of any bill making appropriations of money and embracing distinct items), and an affirmative vote in each house of two-thirds of the members elected is required to pass a bill over his veto. Under the revised constitution of 1908 any bill passed by the legislature and approved by the governor, except appropriation bills, may be referred by the legislature to the qualified electors; and no bill so referred shall become law unless approved by a majority of the electors voting thereon; no See also:local or special See also:act, passed by the legislature, takes effect until it is approved by a majority vote of the electors in the affected district. The administration of See also:justice is entrusted to a supreme See also:court, a continually increasing number of See also:circuit courts (thirty-eightin 1909), one See also:probate court in each county, and not exceeding four justices of the See also:peace in each township. The supreme court is composed of one See also:chief justice and seven See also:associate justices, all elected for a term of ten years, not more than two retiring every two years; it holds four sessions annually, exercises a general control over the inferior courts, may issue, hear and determine any of the more important writs, and has appellate See also:jurisdiction only in all other important cases. There is only one circuit court See also:judge for a circuit, unless the legislature provides for the election of more; the term of office is six years. Circuit court judges have See also:original jurisdiction in most matters See also:civil and criminal, hear appeals from the lower courts, and must hold at least four sessions annually in each county of the circuit. Each county elects a judge of probate for a term of four years; he has original concurrent jurisdiction with the circuit court in matters of probate, and has original jurisdiction in all cases of juvenile delinquents and dependents. The legislature may provide for the election of more than one judge of probate in a, county with more than roo,000 inhabitants. Justices of the peace are elected by the townships for a term of four years—there are not more than four in each township; in civil matters they have exclusive jurisdiction of cases in which the demand does not exceed $roo and concurrent jurisdiction with the circuit courts in See also:contract cases in which the demand does not exceed $300. For purposes of local government the state is divided into eighty-three counties, each of which is in turn divided regularly by N. and S. and E. and W. lines into several townships. In the more sparsely inhabited counties of the upper peninsula and in the N.E. See also:section of the lower peninsula the townships are much larger than in other parts of the state. The officers of the township are a supervisor, clerk, treasurer, See also:highway-commissioner, one overseer of highways for each highway district, a justice of the peace, and not more than four See also:con-stables, all of whom are elected at the annual township meeting in See also:April. The supervisor, two of the justices of the peace and the clerk constitute the township board, whose duty it is to See also:settle claims against the township, See also:audit accounts, and publish annually an itemized statement of receipts and disbursements. The supervisor is also the township See also:assessor, and the several township supervisors constitute the county board of supervisors who equalize property valuations as between townships, authorize townships to See also:borrow money with which to build or repair See also:bridges, are entrusted with the care and management of the property and business of the county, and may borrow or raise by tax what is necessary to meet the more common expenses of the county. Other county officers are a treasurer, clerk, See also:sheriff, See also:register of deeds, attorney, surveyor and two coroners, each elected for a term of two years, a school commissioner elected for a term of four years, and one or more notaries public appointed by the governor.
Under the revised constitution of 1908 the former See also:classification of cities into four classes and the practice of granting special charters were abolished, and the legislature is required to provide by general laws for the See also:incorporation of cities and villages; " such general laws shall limit their See also:rate of See also:taxation for municipal purposes and restrict their powers of borrowing money and contracting debts." Cities and villages are permitted —upon authorization by the affirmative vote of three-fifths of the electors voting on the question—to own and operate, even outside their corporate limits, public utilities for supplying water, light, See also:heat, power and transportation, and may sell and deliver, outside their corporate limits, water, heat, power and light to an amount not more than one-See also:fourth that furnished by them in each case within their corporate limits; but no city or See also:village of less than 25,000 inhabitants may own or operate transportation facilities. Under the revision of 1908 corporate franchises cannot be granted for a longer term than thirty years.
Law.—A wife in Michigan has the same right to her property acquired either before or after See also:marriage as she would have if single, except that she cannot under See also:ordinary circumstances give, See also: A state court of See also:mediation and See also:arbitration, consisting of three members appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate, was created in 1889 to inquire into the cause of grievances threatening or resulting in any strike or See also:lock-out and to endeavour to effect a See also:settlement. Charitable and Penal Institutions.—The state supports the Michigan See also:Asylum for the Insane (opened 1859), at Kalamazoo; the Eastern Michigan Asylum for the Insane (opened 1878), at See also:Pontiac; the Northern Michigan Asylum for the Insane (opened 1885), at Traverse City; the Michigan Asylum for the Dangerous and Criminal Insane (established 1885), at See also:Ionia; the Upper Peninsula See also:Hospital for the Insane, at See also:Newberry; a Psychopathic Hospital (established 1907), at Ann Arbor; a State See also:Sanatorium (established 1905), at See also:Howell; the Michigan State See also:Prison (established 1839), at Jackson; the Michigan Reformatory (established 1887), at Ionia; the State House of Correction and See also:Branch Prison (established 1885), at Marquette; the See also:Industrial School for Boys, at Lansing; the Industrial See also:Home for Girls (established 1879), near See also:Adrian; the State Public School (opened 1874), at See also:Coldwater, a temporary home for dependent See also:children until homes in families can be found for them; the School for the See also:Deaf (established 1854), at See also:Flint; the School for the See also:Blind, at Lansing; an Employment Institution for the Blind (established 1903), at Saginaw; the Home for the Feeble Minded and Epileptic (established 1893), at Lapeer; and the Michigan Soldiers' Home (established 1885), at Grand Rapids. Each of these institutions is under the control of a board of three or more members appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate, and at the head of the department is the State Board of Corrections and Charities, consisting of the governor and four other members appointed by him, with the approval of the Senate, for a term of eight years, one retiring every two years. This board is required to visit each of the institutions at least once a year to ascertain its See also:condition and needs, and all proposed appropriations for their support, plans of buildings, proposed systems of See also:sewerage, See also:ventilation and See also:heating must be submitted to it. See also:Education.—Michigan was a See also:pioneer state in creating the See also:American educational system; she began the organization of it at the time of her See also:admission into the Union in 1837, and has since been noted for the high See also:standard of her See also:schools. Each township operating under the District Act has two school inspectors—one being elected at each See also:town, meeting for a term of two years—who with the township clerk constitute the township board of school inspectors, and to this board is given authority to divide the township into school districts and to exercise a general supervision over the several schools within their jurisdiction; a township may be organized as a single district, called a " township unit district." The qualified electors of each district having an ungraded school elect a See also:moderator, a director and a treasurer—one at each annual school meeting —for a term of three years, who constitute the district school board, and this board is entrusted with ample power for directing the affairs of the school. In a district having more than Too children of school age a graded school under the control of five trustees is formed whenever two-thirds of the electors vote for it at a town meeting, and the trustees of a graded school may establish a high school whenever a majority of the electors authorize them to do so. A high school may also be established in any township in which there is no incorporated village or city if when the question is submitted to the electors of that township a majority of the votes See also:cast are in the affirmative. Each county has a county school commissioner, elected for a term of four years, who exercises a general supervision over the schools within his jurisdiction, and a board of examiners, consisting of three members (including the commissioner) and appointed by the several boards of county supervisors, from whom teachers receive certificates. Finally, at the headof all the public elementary and secondary schools of the state is the state superintendent of public instruction, elected for a term of two years; he is ex officio a member and secretary of the state board of education, and a member, with the right to speak but not to vote, of all other boards having control of public instruction in any state institution. In every district having as many as Boo children between the ages of five and twenty the state requires that the school be taught not less than nine months a year; and a compulsory education law requires the attendance of all children between the ages of eight and fifteen for four months each year, in cities all between the same ages for the full school year, and between the ages of seven and sixteen if found frequenting public places without lawful occupation. The higher state institutions of learning consist of a university, to which graduates of high schools on an accredited See also:list are admitted without examination, four normal schools, an agricultural See also:college, and a school of mines. The university (at Ann Arbor) was established in 1837, and is under the control of a board of regents elected by the See also:people for a term of eight years, two every two years; the See also:president of the institution and the superintendent of public instruction are members of the board but without the right to vote. The state normal schools are: the Michigan State Normal College at Ypsilanti (organized in 1849) ; the Central Michigan Normal School at Mount Pleasant (established in 1895) ; the Northern State Normal School at Marquette (established in 1899) ; and the Western State Normal School at Kalamazoo (established in 1904). All of them are under the state board of education, which consists of the state superintendent of public instruction and three other members elected, one every two years, for a term of six years. The agricultural college, at East Lansing, 3 M. east of Lansing, is the See also:oldest in the United States; it was provided for by the state constitution of 185o, organized in 1855 and opened in 1857, and is under the control of the state board of agriculture, consisting of the president of the college and six other members elected by popular vote for a term of six years, two every two years. The college of mines, at See also:Houghton, was established in 1885 and is under the control of a board of six members appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate, two every two years. In 1908 it had 35 instructors, 253 students, and a library of 22,000 volumes. Other important institutions of learning within the state but not maintained by it are: See also:Albion College (Methodist Episcopal; opened in 1843), at Albion; See also:Hillsdale College (See also:Free Baptist, 1855), at Hillsdale; Kalamazoo College (Baptist, 1855), at Kalamazoo; Adrian College (controlled by the Methodist Protestant Church since 1867), at Adrian; Olivet College (Congregational, 1859), at Olivet; See also:Hope College (Reformed, 1866), at Holland; Detroit College .(Roman See also:Catholic, 1877), at Detroit; Alma College (Presbyterian; incorporated 1886), at Alma; and some professional schools at Detroit (q.v.). See also:Finance.—The See also:revenue of the state is derived almost wholly from taxes, about 87 % from a direct or general property tax and the rest from various specific or indirect taxes, such as the liquor tax and the See also:inheritance tax. The direct tax, other than that on the property of corporations, is assessed by the township supervisors, or, in cities and incorporated villages by the officer named in the See also:charter for that service, on what is supposed to be the full cash value of the property. The See also:assessment See also:roll thus prepared is reviewed by a local board of See also:review; an equalization between the assessing districts in a county is made annually by the county board of supervisors, and between the counties in the state every five years (and at such other times as the legislature may direct) by the state board of equalization, which is composed of the lieutenant-governor, auditor-general, secretary of state, treasurer, and commissioner of the land office. But at the head of the whole taxing system is the board of state tax commissioners and ex officio state board of assessors, consisting of three members appointed by the governor with the approval of the senate for a term of six years. It exercises a general supervision over all other taxing officers and is itself the assessor of the property of railroads, express companies and certain See also:car companies. Mainly through the efficiency of this board the assessed value of the taxable property of the state was increased from $968,189,087 in 1899 to $1,418,251,858 in 1902, or 46.4%, and the taxes levied on railways, which had hitherto been assessed on their See also:gross earnings, were in-creased from $1,483,907 in 1901 to $3,288,162 in 1902, or 121.6%. In entering upon the work of public improvements in 1837 the state borrowed $5,200,000, and the greater portion of the bonds were sold to the See also:Morris Canal and Banking See also:Company and to the See also:Pennsylvania United States See also:Bank, both of which failed when they had only in part paid for the bonds. About this time it was seen that the cost of the improvements undertaken would be much greater than the original estimate and that several of them were impracticable. The difficulty of meeting the See also:interest as it became due soon threatened to be insurmountable, but the state finally sold the improvements made and came out of the experience with good See also:credit although with a large See also:debt—about two and a half millions of dollars. This was further increased during the Civil See also:War, but after the close of that war it was rapidly diminished and finally was extinguished in the last decade of the century. The present constitution (as revised in 1908) forbids the contraction of a state debt exceeding $250,000 except for repelling an invasion or suppressing an insurrection, and the borrowing power of the minor civil divisions is restricted by a general law. The early experience of the state with banks was scarcely less serious than that with public improvements. Although there were already fifteen banks in the state in 1837 yet the cry against mono-poly was loud, and so in that year a general banking law was passed whereby any ten or more freeholders might establish a bank with a See also:capital of not less than fifty thousand nor more than three See also:hundred thousand dollars and begin business as soon as 30% of the capital was paid in in specie. Only a few provisions were made, and those ineffectual, for the See also:protection of the public : later in the same year the legislature passed an act for the suspension of specie payments until the 6th of May 1838, and the consequence was that the state was flooded with irredeemable paper currency. But most of the " See also:wild cat " banks had passed out of existence by 1839, and in 1844 the bank act of 1837 was declared unconstitutional. Profiting by this experience, the framers of the constitution of 185o inserted a See also:provision in that document whereby no general banking law can have effect until it has been submitted to the people and has been approved by a majority of the votes cast on the question. This provision is included in the revised constitution adopted in 1908, with an additional provision that no amendment shall be made to any banking law unless it shall receive an affirmative two-thirds vote of both branches of the legislature. The present banking law provides that the capital stock of a state bank shall be not less than $20,000 in a city of not more than 1500 inhabitants, not less than $25,000 in a city of not more than 5000, not less than $5o,000 in a city of between 5000 and 20,000, not less than $See also:ioo,000 in a city of between 20,000 and I1o,000, and not less than $250,000 in all larger cities. Commercial banks and savings banks are required to keep on hand at least 15% of their total deposits. Every stockholder in a bank is made individually liable to the amount of his stock at its See also:par value in addition to the said stock. And all banks are subject to the inspection and supervision of the commissioner of the state banking department, who is appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate for a term of four years. History.—From 1613 until 176o the territory now within the See also:borders of Michigan formed a part of New See also:France, and the first Europeans to found See also:missions and settlements within those borders were Frenchmen. Two See also:Jesuits, Raymbault and See also:Jogues, visited the site of Sault Sainte Marie as early as 1641 for the See also:conversion of the Chippewas; in r668 Marquette founded there the first permanent settlement within the state; three years later he had founded a See also:mission among the See also:Hurons at Michilimackinac; La Salle built a fort at the mouth of the See also:Saint Joseph in 1679; and in 1701 See also:Cadillac founded Detroit as an important point for the French control of the See also:fur See also:trade. But the missionaries were not interested in the settlement of the See also:country by Europeans, the fur traders were generally opposed to it, there was See also:bitter strife between the missionaries and Cadillac, and the French system of See also:absolutism in government and See also:monopoly in trade were further obstacles to progress. Even Detroit was so expensive to the government of the See also:mother country that there was occasional talk of abandoning it; and so during the last fifty-nine years that Michigan was a part of new France there were no new settlements, and little if any growth in those already established. During the last war between the English and the French in See also:America the Michigan settlements passed into the possession of the English, Detroit in 176o and the others in 1761, but the time had not yet come for much improvement. The white inhabitants, still mostly French, were subjected to an English See also:rule that until the See also:Quebec Act of 1774 was chiefly military, and as a consequence many of the more thrifty sought homes elsewhere, and the Indians, most of whom had been See also:allies of the French, were so See also:ill-treated, both by the officers and traders, that under Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, a simultaneous attack on the English posts was planned. Detroit was besieged for five months and both Michilimackinac and Saint Joseph were taken. Moreover, the English policy, which first of all was concerned with the profits of trade and manufacture, gave little more encouragement to the settlement of this section of the country than did the French. By the Treaty of See also:Paris, in 1783, which concluded the American War of See also:Independence, the See also:title to what is now Michigan passed to the United States, and in 1787 this region became a part of the North-West Territory; but it was not until 1796 that Detroit and Mackinac (Michilimackinac), in
accordance with See also:Jay's Treaty of 1794, were surrendered by Great See also:Britain. In 'Soo, on the See also:division of the North-West Territory, the west portion of Michigan became a part of the newly-established Indiana Territory, into which the entire area of the present state was embodied in 1802, when Ohio was admitted to the Union; and finally, in 18o5, Michigan Territory was organized, its south boundary being then described as a line See also:drawn east from the south extremity of Lake Michigan until it intersected Lake Erie, and its west boundary a line drawn from the same starting point through the middle of Lake Michigan to its north extremity and then due north to the north boundary of the United States. In 1812, during the second war between Great Britain and the United States, General See also: The consequence was that after the bloodless " war " between the two states for the possession of See also:Toledo, Congress settled the dispute in Ohio's favour and gave to Michigan the territory since known as the upper peninsula. The boundaries as fixed by Congress were rejected by a convention which met on the 4th of September at Ann Arbor, but they were accepted by the convention of the Jackson party, which met, also at Ann Arbor, on the 6th of December; the action of this latter convention was considered authoritative by Congress, which admitted Michigan into the Union as a state on the 26th of January 1837. Since admission into the Union the more interesting experiences of the state have been with See also:internal improvements and with banking, which together resulted in serious See also:financial See also:distress; in the utili• zation of its natural resources, which have been a vast source of See also:wealth; and in the development of its educational system, in which the state has exerted a large See also:influence throughout the Union. From the beginning of its government under its first state constitution in 1835 until 1855 Michigan had a Democratic administration with the exception of the years 1840-1842, when opposition to the financial See also:measures of the Democrats placed the Whigs in power. But it was in Michigan that the Republican party received its first See also:official recognition, at a state convention held at Jackson on the 6th of July 1857, and from the beginning of the following year the administration has been Republican with the exception of two terms from 1883 to 1885, and from 1891 to 1893, when it was again Democratic. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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