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SONG , either an actual " singing " performance, or in a See also:literary sense a See also:short metrical See also:composition adapted for singing or actually set to See also:music. In the second sense of the word it must strictly be lyrical in its nature; but musicians and others frequently use the word in the wider sense of any short poem set to music. A " song," as a See also:form of poem, usually turns on some single thought or emotion, expressed subjectively in a number of stanzas or strophes. Almost every nation is in See also:possession of an immense See also:store of old See also:simple See also:ballads (q.v.), which are the spontaneous outcome of the See also:inspiration of the See also:people (" folk-songs "), and represent in a remarkable degree their tastes, feelings and aspirations; but in addition to these, there are, of course, the more finished and See also:regular compositions See also:born of the conscious See also:art of the civilized poet.
In a purely literary sense the song may exist, and does largely exist, without any necessary See also:accompaniment of music. With the See also:accession of See also: That outburst of song was followed by nearly a See also:hundred years during which the simplest and more See also:direct forms of lyrical utterance found comparatively little encouragement. Just before the romantic revival the song reasserted its position in literature, and achieved the most splendid successes in the hands of See also:Burns, who adapted to his purpose all kinds of fragmentary material which had survived up to his See also:time in the memories of rustic persons. In See also:Scotland, indeed, the song was rather revived and adorned than resuscitated; in England it may be said to have been recreated by See also:Blake. At the opening of the loth century it became the vehicle of some of the loveliest fancies and the purest art of See also:Coleridge, See also:Keats, See also:Shelley, See also:Byron and See also:Landor; while in a later day songs of rare perfection were composed by See also:Tennyson and by See also:Christina See also:Rossetti. (E.G.) Song in Music. The See also:history of song as a musical form falls into two See also:main divisions, the one belonging to the folk-song, the other to the art-song. Though the See also:line of demarcation between the twocannot be definitely drawn, for they have acted and reacted upon each other ever since music existed as a cultivated art, yet it may reasonably be maintained that the folk-song, which lies at the See also:base of all music, preserves, and has in all ages preserved, characteristics such as must always distinguish the rude and unconscious products of the human mind, working more by See also:instinct than by method, from the polished and conscious See also:pro-ducts of the See also:schools. For the purposes then of this See also:article, art-song may be distinguished from folk-song by the fact that it is the See also:work of trained musicians and is designed, at any See also:rate after the See also:close of the 16th century, for See also:voice with instrumental accompaniment, whereas we shall restrict the See also:term folk-song to such melodies as appear to have been the work of untutored minds, and to have arisen independently of any See also:felt See also:necessity for See also:harmonic support. The See also:early history of song on its musical side may be regarded as the history of the See also:evolution of See also:melody: and since what is known of melody before the end of the s6th century, apart from the folk-song, is extremely slight, it is in the folk-song itself that this evolution is primarily to be studied. Previously to the See also:period named the instrumental accompaniment to vocal melody, both in the folk-song and in the art-song, played an entirely insignificant See also:part. Afterwards the new conception of See also:harmony which came in with the 17th century not only shifted the basis of melody itself but made the instrumental accompaniment an essential feature of See also:artistic song. Though it lies beyond the See also:province of this article to discuss fully the complex questions involved in the evolution of vocal melody, some slight See also:sketch is a necessary preliminary to a proper understanding of the subject under See also:consideration. It may be assumed that in the course of ages the uncouth vocal utterances of See also:primitive See also:man See also:developed, under the See also:influence of an instinct for expressing his inner nature through Origins. a more expressive See also:medium than See also:language alone, into sounds of more or less definite See also:pitch, bearing intelligible relation-See also:ships one to another; and that from these emerged short phrases, in which See also:rhythm probably played the See also:principal part, reiterated with that interminable persistency, which many travellers have noted as characteristic of See also:savage nations in the See also:present day. A further See also:stage is reached when some such, primitive phrase is repeated at a different level by way of contrast and variety, but melody in any true sense of the word does not begin till two different phrases come to be combined in some sort of See also:scheme or See also:pattern. When the See also:power to produce such combinations become See also:common in a nation, its musical history may be said to have begun.' Racial characteristics are displayed in the choice of notes out of which such phrases are formed. But in all races it may be surmised that the main determining cause in the first instance is that natural rise and fall of the voice which gives expressiveness and meaning to speech, even though contributory causes arising from the imitative See also:faculty common to man may perhaps be admitted—such as the See also:sound of the See also:wind, the waves of the See also:sea, the cries of animals, the notes of birds, the striking of one See also:object against another, and finally the sounds made by primitive See also:instruments. The tendency of the speaking voice to fall a See also:fourth and to rise a fifth has often been noted. It is probable that these intervals were among the first to be defined, and that the many modes or scales, underlying the popular melodies of the various nations of the See also:world, were the result of different methods 1 If the one phrase is represented by A, and the other by B, the commonest melodic schemes presented by the folk-songs of the world may be viewed thus—AB, AAB, ABB, See also:ABA, ABAB, AABB, AABA, ABBA. Of these, those in which the opening phrase A is repeated at the conclusion are the most satisfactory, for both instinct and See also:reason are gratified by a connexion between the beginning and the end. As exact conformity to pattern becomes wearisome and is See also:alien to the progressive instinct, the See also:element of surprise is introduced into the above schemes by various modifications of the repeated phrase on its second See also:appearance, or by the entrance of an entirely new - phrase C. In some See also:fine melodies there is no repetition of phrase, a number of different phrases being knit, by principles, which defy See also:analysis, into one structure. Such melodies imply a melodic sense of an exceptional See also:order. Many melodies involve more than foul phrases; of these the See also:rondo form should be mentioned—ABA C'ADA of determining the intervening sounds. It has been generally assumed that the fall of a fourth is the See also:interval earliest arrived at by the instinct of the Indo-See also:European See also:race—and that intervening sounds were added which resulted eventually in the three possible forms of the diatonic tetrachord, the earliest being that which is characteristic of the See also:ancient Dorian mode or See also:scale (the basis of the See also:Greek musical See also:system) in which two tetrachords, having the semitone between the lowest See also:note and the next above it, are superimposed (see Bourgault Ducoudray, Introduction to 30 Chansons de Grece et d'Orient). It must, however, be remembered that the popular instinct knows nothing about tetrachords or scales, which are abstractions, and only creates melodies, or at least successions of sounds, which are the outward expression of inward feelings. The Greek theorists therefore, in recording certain modes as being in use in their day, were in effect merely stating results arrived at by analysing popular melodies—and from the persistence with which the Greeks, and following them, most of the musical historians of See also:Europe, have insisted upon a tetrachordal basis for the art of music it may be assumed that in these melodies a basis of four diatonic notes was a conspicuous feature. It is a feature which marks a considerable number of folk-songs heard in See also:Greece at the present day, and also of many folk-songs which are not Greek, the See also:Breton, for example (see Bourgault Ducoudray, Chansons de Basse-Bretagne). The interval of a fourth is nearly always prominent too in the music of savages. If it is natural to connect these facts with the drop of a fourth, characteristic of the speaking voice, it is dangerous to assume an exclusively " tetrachordal period " of primitive song, at any rate till it can be shown that melodies based on other principles did not exist side by side with those that are tetrachordal. From the rise of a fifth and the fall of a fourth, the See also:octave, which results from combining these intervals, may well have become See also:familiar at a very early See also:epoch. Indeed a prolonged howl beginning on a high note and descending a full octave in semitones—or notes approximately resembling semitones—is recorded both of the Caribs and of the natives of See also:Australia, so that familiarity with the octave need not presuppose an advanced stage of musical development. To pass from the See also:sphere of mere See also:speculation nearer to the domain of history, it may be asserted with confidence that the See also:oldest form of song or See also:chant which can be established is found in certain recitation formulae. These, as is natural, will be found to be derived from the rise and fall of the voice in speech. It is therefore not surprising that O. See also:Fleischer (Sammelbdnde der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft, See also:Jan.–See also:Mar. 1902) is able to trace practically identical formulae in the traditional methods of reciting the Vedas, the See also:Koran, the Jewish and See also:Christian liturgies. The simplest form consists of four notes (a diatonic tetrachord), a reciting note, preceded by two notes rising to it, and followed by a fall, or See also:cadence, for the close, the voice rising above the reciting note in order to emphasize important words, or according to the nature of the See also:sentence. An extended form is both natural and common.
The influence of these and similar formulae' upon popular melodies can be illustrated by countless examples (for which
1 The derivation of such formulae from more primitive incantations of magicians and See also:medicine-men is a possible and plausible theory (see J. Combarieu, La Musique: ses lois et son evolution. See also:Paris, 1907).the reader is referred to I.M.G.). As characteristic as any is the melody of the Christian hymn which begins
and concludes
See also:Sis prae - sul et cus - to - di - a. Another is the Hungarian folk-song: Nem Szoktam.
Many See also:French songs have been collected in See also:recent years, of which the following See also:formula, or See also:variations of it, form an essential feature:
This corresponds closely with the third example given above. That the melodies in question are of See also:great antiquity may be inferred from the fact that they are almost confined to the oldest class of folk-song, that which celebrates May Day and the begin ning of See also:spring. M. Tiersot (La Chanson populaire en See also:France, Paris, 1889) plausibly finds in them a survival of a melodic fragment, which may have belonged to See also:pagan See also:hymns in See also:honour of spring, basing his supposition upon the fact that the phrase in question occurs in the melody of the See also:Easter hymn " O Filii et Filiae." The See also:medieval See also: Its appearance, like that of the Easter hymn, in songs, which on other grounds can be proved to be of great antiquity, points to the See also:probability of its being of popular origin. It also bears equally strong marks of being derived from a recitation formula, as indeed its See also:appropriation for chanting a psalm sufficiently indicates. Endeavours to detach other primitive formulae from the popular melodies in which they are enshrined form a branch of folk-See also:lore now being actively pursued. It may be hoped that " See also:comparative melodology " —if the phrase may be coined—will , do for this See also:department of musical knowledge what the See also:science of comparative See also:philology has done for language. Oscar Fleischer (I.M.G. i. 1) has endeavoured to trace the history in Europe of the primitive phrases belonging to the melody of " See also:Les See also:Series " (or Unus est See also:Deus) as given by De Villemarque in Barzaz-Breiz __= Te lu - cis an - to ter - mi - num, No. 1, in the musical appendix, as also of the opening phrase in the old Christian hymn, " Conditor See also:alme siderum " (attributed to See also:Bishop See also:Ambrose) : The phrase here belongs to a melody in the Phrygian mode, but when it is used in See also:major melodies its characteristic notes are those of the common chord, with a rise to the See also:sixth at the point of See also:climax, corresponding to the rise in the recitation formulae given above. By what processes the notes of the common chord became universally established it is not possible to determine, but it may be said in a See also:general way that the reference to a given tonic was felt in all ages to be a necessary See also:condition even of the simplest melody, and that, as the melodic instinct See also:grew, an almost equal necessity was found for a point of contrast, and that this point of contrast became with most nations of See also:Aryan origin the fifth note above the tonic, at any rate in the more popular scales. Combarieu (La Musique, p. 121) observes that we owe the use of the octave, the fifth and the fourth to the See also:South and See also:East, but that the importance of the third in our See also:modern musical system is due to the instinctive See also:genius of the See also:West and See also:North, i.e. to England and Scandinavia (see also See also:Hugo See also:Riemann, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, See also:Leipzig, 1898, and Wooldridge, See also:Oxford History of Music, 1. 161-162, where the well-known See also:quotation from Giraldus Cambriensis, or Gerald See also:Barry, of the 12th century, establishing the fact of part-singing in England, is given). If, as has been shown, the origin of many melodies can be traced to formulae originally used for chanting or reciting, it must not be forgotten that formulae thus derived assume very different characters under the influence of more decided rhythms than that of speech. To accompany bodily movements (which by a natural See also:law become rhythmical when often repeated) with music, vocal or instrumental, is an almost universal human instinct, whether to alleviate the See also:burden or the monotony of labour, as in See also:rowing, See also:sowing, See also:spinning, hammering and a See also:score of other pursuits, or to promote See also:pleasure and excitement, as in the See also:dance. It is unsafe to infer, as some have done, from the See also:custom, known in all ages, of dancing and singing at the same time, that song arose as a mere See also:accessory to the dance. It is more probable that the dance has its origin in the mimetic actions, which are the natural accompaniment of rudimentary song. At the same time, no one will deny that races with ballads of their own early made use of them for the dance, and that, especially on the rhythmical side, melody owes to the dance an incalculable See also:debt.l It may be assumed then that upon some such basis as has been roughly indicated the different nations of the world have developed each their own musical phraseology, emanating from and answering to their several needs and temperaments and that the short melodic phrases, out of which folk-tunes are made, have their roots in a past as distant as that in which the elements of language were formed, and that the popular instinct which through countless ages has diversified those forms and arranged them into melodies,. whose constructions are mostly susceptible to analysis, is the same instinct as that which has given to language its See also:grammar and its syntax. ` In proceeding now to the actual history of song in Europe, it must be remembered that it is inseparably connected with History of poetry. Melody till within comparatively recent Song in times continued to fulfil its See also:original See also:function of europe. / enhancing the value and expressiveness of language. For poetry of the epic See also:kind with the See also:long lines common to early European peoples, some such forms of chanting as have been indicated must have sufficed. 1 For the growth of the refrain from communal dancing and singing, see C. J. See also:Sharp, English Folk-Songs, p. 93. Nor should the association of dancing with all primitive religious ceremonies be forgotten—see K. J. See also:Freeman, Schools of Hellas (1907). Melody, as we understand it, with compact form and balanced phrases, could only have existed if and when the same qualities appeared in popular poetry. This was probably the See also:case long before the taste for long epic narratives began to disappear in favour of more concise forms of ballad and of lyric. The See also:stanza form must have been generally familiar in the early See also:middle ages from the Latin hymns of the Church, and these hymns themselves are likely to have been formed, in part at any rate, on See also:models which were already known and popular. We have definite See also:information that in the early middle ages two sorts of popular poetry existed—the See also:historical ballads (descendants of those alluded to by See also:Tacitus in his Germania as characteristic of the Germans, and as constituting g Song. their only historical records), and popular songs of a See also:character which caused them to be described as canlica nefaria by St See also:Augustine; the See also:council of See also:Agde (5o6) forbade Christians to frequent assemblies where they were sung: St Cesaire, bishop of See also:Arles, speaks of the chants diaboliques sung by See also:country folk, both men and See also:women; the Council of Chalons menaced the women, who seem to have been the See also:chief offenders, with See also:excommunication and See also:whipping; lastly See also:Charlemagne, whose love for the better class of song is attested by the fact that he ordered a collection of them to be made for his own use, said of the other " canticum turpe et luxuriosum circa ecclesias agere omnino, quod et ubique vitandum est." Beyond the fact of their existence we know nothing of these songs of the early middle ages. Their influence on the popular mind was vigorously resisted, as we have seen, by the Church, and for many centuries efforts were made to supplant them by songs, the subjects of which were taken from the See also:Gospel narratives and the lives of the See also:saints, so that folk-song and church song strove together for popularity. Doubtless the church song borrowed musical elements from its See also:rival: nor was the folk-song uninfluenced in its turn by the traditional music of the Church. In considering this latter music, it is important to distinguish between the melodies adapted to the See also:prose portions of the See also:ritual without definite rhythm, and those of the hymns, where the See also:metre of the Latin verses and their stanza form necessitated a corresponding rhythm and musical form. Rhythm in music, which has its origin and counterpart in the regular bodily movements involved in various departments of labour and in the dance, must, as has already been said, have always been an essential feature of popular melody, and it is reasonable to conclude from its See also:absence in the See also:plain-song, and indeed for many centuries in the compositions of musicians, which had the plain-song for their basis, that these hymns, which represented the popular part of the Church services, were also representative of the popular tastes of the time. In all ages the Church has drawn largely from popular song for the melodies of its hymns. It is moreover in the highest degree improbable that the Church should have been able to evolve out of its inner consciousness, without pre-existing models, a melody—to take a single instance—like that of " Conditor alme siderum "—the survival of which in innumerable European folk-songs has already been alluded to.
Numerous additions to the store of plain-song melodies were made by the monastic composers of the middle ages• the most notable is that of the See also:Dies Irae, of which the words are attributed to See also: ors— Mag - nus Cae - sar Ot - to, quem hic mo - dus re - fert, in no - mi - ne Ot - tine dic - tus, quadam noc - to mem-bra su - a dum See also:col- to - See also:cat Pa - la - ti - See also:urn a a ca - su su - bi - to in - flam - ma - tur. (12 more stanzas.) More remarkable still is a "Chanson de Table" of the loth century, a really graceful melody, the quotation of which may serve to destroy the illusion that the major scale, so often described as modern, has any other claim to the See also:title than the fact that it has been preserved by modern musicians, while others have been discarded. j Jam,dul-cis a - mi - ca, ve - ni - to, quam si-cut See also:cor ' P - • me - urn di - li- go; In - tra in cu - bi - cu-lum me - urn, or - na-men-tis cunc - tis or - na - turn. In the same collection may be found, beside other historical songs, two odes of Boethius and two odes of See also:Horace, set to music;' but whether the melodies given represent medieval music or See also:Roman music, corrupted or not, it is, impossible to determine. These songs have been dwelt upon, for they not only represent some kinds of music that were sung in the 9th and loth centuries, but indicate the See also:sources from which later on the work of the troubadours was derived. They may be summed up as a church-song and folk-song, and the songs by more or less cultured persons made after these models. For the subsequent history of the art the folk-song represents by far the most potent influence, but the melodies quoted by Coussemaker which might be regarded as the See also:works of the popular instinct afford in-sufficient data for safe generalization. More direct See also:evidence is to be found in the 12th-century See also:pastoral See also:play—Le Jeu de See also:Robin et de See also:Marion, till within recent years considered as the work of See also:Adam de la See also:Hale, but since the able criticisms of M. Tiersot in the work referred to above, likely henceforth to be regarded as ' This melody, which is plainly derived from recitation, with A as tonus carrens, closely resembles that of Ljomur, a folk-song of the See also:Faeroe islanders, noted by H. Thuren in 1902 and identified by him with a piece of recitation (" Fill care'') from a 12th-century " Drame liturgique " (deciphered by O. Fleischer, Neumenstudien, Bd. II. p. 23). See Folkesangen paa Faroerne, H. Thuren (See also:Copenhagen, 19o8). Identity of style between a popular song of the 9th century, a drame liturgique of the 12th and a folk-song still sung in the loth is sufficiently striking—especially in view of the fact that in the Faeroe Islands instrumental music is practically unknown. ' See also:Lord See also:Ashburnham has a See also:Virgil of the loth century, " Bans lequel les discours directs de l'Eneide sont accompagnes de notations musicales" (Coussemaker).the oldest collection of folk-songs in existence; for the original compositions which Maitre Adam has bequeathed to posterity preclude us from believing that he could have originated the dainty airs contained in that play, of which Robin m'aime is generally familiar, and is still to be heard on the lips of peasants in the north of France (see Tiersot, p. 424, n.). If M. Tiersot's view is correct, the melodies in Robin et Marion may be taken to represent the popular style of an epoch considerably anterior to the date of the play itself (though See also:allowance must be made for the correcting hand of a professional musician) which is our excuse for introducing them at this See also:place. Before speaking of the songs of troubadours, trouveres and See also:minnesingers, allusion must be made to a class of men who played a part the importance of which both in the social and See also:political See also:life of the middle ages is attested by innumerable chroniclers and poets, viz. the skalds, bards or minstrels—the chief depositories of the musical and poetical traditions of the several countries to which they belonged. They varied greatly in See also:rank. Some were attached to the See also:retinue of See also:kings and nobles, whilst others catered for the See also:ear of the peasantry (eventually to be classed with jugglers, acrobats, bearwards and the like, sharing the unenviable reputation which attached to these representatives of popular medieval amusements). That these latter were also welcome at the halls of the great, is an established fact, which may serve as a reminder that in feudal times the distinction that now exists between the music of the cultivated classes and of the peasantry was but slight. The style of the church music was as universally familiar as the style of the folk-song. For musicians, both of high and See also:low degree, no other models existed. This fact is patently clear when the songs of the troubadours, trouveres and minnesingers are studied. Those minstrels continued the traditions of the better class of their predecessors, with strivings after a more polished, elaborate and artistic style. In forming their style upon an admixture of folk-song and church-song they in fact assimilated neither, and created a See also:mongrel product without real vitality—a product that See also:left practically no See also:mark upon the subsequent development of the art. The astonishing skill which they exhibited in adapting the language of poetry to the most complicated metrical forms deserted them when they touched the question of musical form and of melody. Indeed their music, except in rare instances, was an adornment which the poetry could have dispensed with, and may be regarded in the, main simply as a concession to the immemorial custom of treating music and poetry as inseparable arts. The real importance of these courtly minstrels in the history of song consists in their having firmly established the rhyming stanza as the vehicle for the expression of lyrical feeling, for with the rhyming stanza a corresponding compact and symmetrical melodic form was See also:bound to come. It was, however, reserved for the popular instinct, and not for trouveres and minnesingers, to develop this form (it is probable too that some at least of the stanza forms employed belonged first to popular poetry and were afterwards developed and elaborated by these musicians of the great houses). The scheme upon which the lyrical stanza was usually based was one in which two similar parts (called by the See also:German Meistersingers, Stollen or props, and constituting the Aufgesang or opening song) were followed by an See also:independent third part, the length of which was not prescribed (called Abgesang or concluding song). The See also:complete stanza was called Lied and was knit together by different schemes of See also:rhyme. For the first part the trouveres and Meistersingers were content with some simple phrase, often borrowed direct from the folk-song, repeating it, as was natural, for the exactly similar second part: then for the third the style was See also:apt to See also:change towards the ecclesiastical and to wander aimlessly on to an unconvincing conclusion. The popular instinct was finer, for we find in innumerable folk-songs, belonging to the 14th and 15th centuries, that the greater length of the Abgesang was seized upon as an opportunity, not merely for introducing fresh material, after the repetition of the phrase attached,to the two Stollen, but also for a return to that phrase,
•
zi
oe some See also:reminiscence or variation of it, by way of conclusion, thus producing a compact form, answering to the natural requirements of the artistic sense. Thus the favourite scheme of the troubadours, which may be represented as AAB, had developed in the folk-song into the scheme AABA—and this scheme has served for thousands of popular melodies throughout Europe. In some rare cases the contrasting portion might be conceived as implying modulation into the See also: 131 and 195.
' Modal folk-song melodies are often tested by their conformity or otherwise to the modes as known from medieval composers. This is to limit our conception of natural forces by the use made of them by a few men at a particular epoch for special purposes. If a mode can be said to exist for a purpose, that purpose is melody: to apply to modal folk-melodies the canons Iaid down by composers with whom melody was a quantite negligeable is sheer perversity. Recent discoveries in the See also: If the charming English song " The See also:Nightingale " (Medieval and Plainsong Society) is of popular origin, it may serve as an indication that these melismata were also common in England (cf. also " Ah! the sighs that come from my See also:heart," which belongs to the reign of See also: It is to be deplored that the English composers of the 15th and 16th centuries did not follow the example of Dutch, German and French musicians, who utilized popular melodies as the foundation or canto fermo of their masses and motets (one example only is known, " 0 Westron Wynde ") and also arrange them in parts for music-loving circles (to a limited extent this appears to have been done in England, e.g. the Freemen's Songs in Deuteromela). But in England, as in other European countries, survivals of medieval melodies are still to be found among the peasantry in quantities which vary according to the degree in which modern music has penetrated to country districts. In Germany, for instance, where musical culture has been most widely spread, the medieval folk-song, according to Herr Bohme, is no longer heard; it is possible, however, that this statement may be contradicted or modified, if the same systematic See also:search for the Germanic folk-song, which has been made recently in France, England and elsewhere, is undertaken before it is too See also:late. Melodies formed by composers under the principles of modern harmonic music have largely usurped their place.' The folk-song is eventually killed by the products of the musical manufactories of the See also:town. The peasantry provided with songs from outside is relieved from the necessity of providing for its own needs, or of cherishing with the love of earlier times its own traditional See also:inheritance. It is true that for many centuries numbers of composed songs have found their way into the popular repertory and have there undergone in many in-stances transformations which serve as a complete disguise to their real origin: but in general a fine ear can detect these intruders. Fcr even when they have suffered change or transformation in passing through a new environment the See also:stamp of an individual or a period remains, whereas the folk-song of tradition is the work not of one age, but of many, not of the individual, but the collective mind. For songs made by uncultivated persons, and passed on to others without the aid of writing or of See also:printing, soon lose in the course of oral transmission even such traces of individual authorship as they may once have possessed. Moreover the makers of folk-songs are concerned with nothing so little as the assertion of their own individuality. They know that it is the most familiar that is the most acceptable. Novelty has no charms for themselves or their audiences. Instinct as well as policy keep them to recognized types and formulae; and the innumerable variations which these undergo from age to age are probably far more frequently due to lapses of memory than to capacity for invention. Major tunes inadvertently sung in minor modes, or See also:vice versa, or the accidental application of a tune to verses, for which it was not originally intended, give rise in many cases to practically new melodies. Though an author might be named, if it were possible to know the history of a folk-melody, for each change that it has assumed in the course of its history, it is clear that authorship of this kind is not what we mean when we name See also:Dibdin as the author of " Tom See also:Bowling." The theory that the folk-song is but the degenerate offspring of a cultivated ancestry, that the peasantry have, in fact, taken their music from a See also:superior class, and trans-formed it to suit their own tastes and idioms, has been and is still held apparently by many (see Closson, Chansons populaires belges; and Combarieu, La Musique, p. 114). This is tantamount to the See also:assumption that the presence among songs of the ' The See also:error must be guarded against of supposing that melodies, heard to-day among the peasantry, which suggest medieval times, are necessarily medieval in origin. It has been already indicated that dorian, aeolian and mixolydian modes (to name those which are most prevalent) are natural modes, not church modes; they are still employed by folk-singers in many parts of Europe. A melody in the modern major scale is just as liable at the present day to submit to transformation into the mixolydian or some other mode, as melodies in other modes are liable to become major.peasantry of beautiful melodies involves pre-existing musical See also:civilization, and that the popular instinct is incapable, without cultivation, of creating melodies that are artistically beautiful. It would be difficult to support this assumption in the case of the German and Dutch medieval songs, to which reference has been made; the cases that could be cited, in which well-known airs of the town have passed to the country and suffered trans-formation, are insufficient data for establishing a general See also:rule as to the origin of folk-songs. Indeed, the very fact of such transformation tends to prove the existence of a strictly popular music, into whose See also:idiom the town music is transformed. To deny that uncultivated peasants can create melody is to forget that the See also:languages even of savages have their grammar and syntax, as well as qualities that are rhythmical and musical, and that even among civilized people those same qualities existed long before they were analysed and tabulated by grammarians, and further developed by trained literary men. The case of melody is strictly analogous to that of languages. As every country has its own store of folk-songs in which. See also:national characteristics find expression through idioms which differentiate its songs from those of other countries, it would be arbitrary to select the songs of one country rather than those of another for See also:separate discussion. The history of the art-song has now to be considered, of See also:solo song, that is, with instrumental accompaniment as an essential part. Songs for two or more voices with The or without accompaniment, though they properly p,.t-song. belong to the subject of this article, are passed over, for they but exhibit the tendencies manifested in solo song when applied to more complicated forms. Operatic songs and arias are likewise omitted (except in the early See also:Italian period), as belonging to a branch of music which requires separate treatment (see See also:ARIA; OPERA). Instrumental song arose during the 16th century, a time in which composers, released by the spirit of the See also:Renaissance from the exclusive service of the Church, were already becoming active in secular directions. The See also:madrigal was the favourite form of composition and was rapidly approaching its period of maturity: it was now to be superseded as the popular diversion of cultivated society by solo song. The See also:habit had already sprung up of supplying voices that might be missing in a madrigal by instruments: if all the voices but one were absent, the effect of a solo with instrumental accompaniment was realized. A still nearer approach to solo song was made when singers, selecting one part of a madrigal for the voice, themselves played the rest on See also:lute or chitarrone. In such performances the voice part was likely to receive most attention —even in madrigal-singing it was not unknown for the See also:soprano to embroider her part with gruppetti and ornamental passages (see Kiesewetter's Schicksale u. Beschaffenheit See also:des Wettlichen Gesanges, p. 72, for an example of a simple part as embellished by the well-known Signora See also:Vittoria Archilei)—and the accompaniment to undergo processes of simplification, thus preparing the way for melodies, simple or ornate, with unobtrusive accompaniments, and perhaps also contributing to the invention of that declamatory or recitative style, attributed to Cavalieri, See also:Peri and See also:Caccini, the founders of See also:oratorio and opera. Such melodies are found in Caccini's famous Nuove Musiche, published in See also:Venice in 16o1 (" Feri Selvaggi " may serve as a beautiful. specimen of simple melody; " Cor mio " is typical of the ornate style, " Deh! See also:dove son fuggite " of the declamatory: the last two are quoted in Kiesewetter, Geschichte and Beschaffenheit des Weltlichen Gesanges, p. 73). Caccini claimed in the See also:preface to that work to be the first to invent songs " for a single voice to the accompaniment of a simple See also:instrument." It is true that his See also:friends in See also:Rome (his native See also:city), at whose houses these new compositions were performed, assured him that they had never heard the like before, and that his style exhibited possibilities for the expression of feeling, that were excluded, when the voice sang merely one part in a contrapuntal work. But, about See also:thirty years before Caccini, lutenists in France had anticipated his innovations, and composed solo songs, with lute accompaniments, in which is evidenced the struggle, not always successful,
to break away from, polyphonic traditions. Le See also:Roy's Airs de Cour, published in 1571, may be cited in See also:proof of this statement. Of these airs " Je suis amour " is somewhat in the declamatory recitative style of Caccini's Nuove musiche (see SammellAnde, Int. Musik Gesellschaft, article " Airs de Cour of Adrien le Roy,'! by See also:Janet See also:Dodge). Generally speaking, it may be said of early French songs that they were longer in shaking off the influence of the past than the songs of the Italians, many tricks of expressions, belonging to polyphonic times, surviving both in voice parts and accompaniments. In the voice parts sometimes the influence of popular song is evident, at others they are neither melodious nor yet declamatory, but merely suggest a single part in a polyphonic composition, while the accompaniments for the lute are generally a mixture of chords used with harmonic effects, and certain polyphonic tricks inherited from the past two centuries. In England two books of " Ayres," for a single voice with lute accompaniment, one by See also: " rank as master-pieces of their kind. Both in structure and in feeling they exactly catch the essentials of the lyrics of the period. Their daintiness and See also:charm make it easy to forgive an air of artificiality, which was after all inevitable--if the songs were to represent the spirit of their environment.)
Meanwhile Italian composers, who, in spite of the frottole, villote, See also:villanelle, balletti and falalas (arrangements in vocal parts of popular melodies common in the last See also:half of the 16th century) seem to have been unaffected in the new song movement by popular influences, went straight from the polyphonic to the recitative style, and advanced with extraordinary rapidity. Melody was quickly added to relieve the monotony of recitative which must have been acutely felt by the hearers of the early operas, and considerable advance in this direction was made by See also:Cavalli and See also:Cesti (see Oxford History of Music, vol. iii., for details of their methods). See also:Monteverde, though a greater genius than either of them, did not succeed in forcing the daring qualities of his own conceptions on others. The famous lament of See also:Ariadne was the expression of an individual genius casting all rules aside for the See also:sake of poignant emotional effect rather than the beginning of a new epoch in song. See also:Carissimi and See also:Rossi in oratorio and See also:cantata (a word which then merely described a piece that was sung, as See also:sonata a piece that was played, and consisted generally of alternate recitative and aria) brought the organization of melody to a high degree of elaboration, far beyond anything attempted by Cavalli and Cesti. In their hands the declamatory methods of Monteverde were made subordinate to larger purposes of See also:design. A broad and general characterization
' See also: It was moreover inevitable in these early developments of musical style, in which melody had to play the leading part, that such sacrifices as were necessary in balancing the rival claims of expression and form should be in favour of the latter rather than the former. But the formal perfection of melody was not the only problem which 17th-century Italian composers had to face. The whole question of instrumental accompaniment had to be worked out; the nature and capacities of instruments, including the voice itself, had to be explored; the reconciliation of the new art of harmony with the old art of See also:counterpoint to be effected. It speaks volumes for the innate musical sense and technical skill of the early Italian composers that the initial stage of tentative effort passed so quickly, and that at the close of the 17th century we are conscious of breathing an See also:atmosphere not of experimental work, but of mature art. Alessandro See also:Scarlatti (1659–1725) sums up the period for Italy. That much of his work is dry, a mere See also:exhibition of consummate technical skill without inspiration, is not surprising when the quantity of it is realized, and also the unfavourable conditions under which operatic composers had to work, but the best of it is singularly noble in conception and perfect in design. The same is true of the best work of Legrenzi, See also:Stradella, Caldara, Leonardo See also:Leo, See also:Durante, work which was of incalculable importance for the development of musical, and particularly of vocal, art, and which will always, for minds attuned to its atmosphere of classical intellectuality, severity and self-See also:restraint, possess an abiding charm: but comparatively few specimens have retained the affections of the world at large. Carissimi's " Vittoria," Scarlatti's " 0 Cessate " and " Le Violette " are the most notable exceptions (" Pieta Signore " is not included, as no one now attributes it to Stradella). The almost universal preference of the Italians in the 17th and 18th centuries for the aria in da See also:capo form involved serious sacrifices on the dramatic and emotional side: for although this form was but an elaboration of the folk-song type, ABA, yet it involved, as the folk-song type did not, the repetition note merely of the melody of the opening part, but of the words attached to it. It is this See also:double repetition which from the point of view of dramatic sincerity forms so disturbing an element. But composers, as has been remarked, were too much occupied with exploring the formal possibilities of melody to establish a really intimate connexion between music and text (Monteverde being a notable exception), a detailed See also:interpretation of which See also:lay outside their scheme of song. Elaboration of melody soon came to involve much repetition of words, and this was not felt as an absurdity so long as the music was broadly in See also:accord with the atmosphere or situation required. A few lines of poetry were thought sufficient for a fully developed aria. Exceptions are however to be found in what is known as the recitativo arioso—of which remarkably fine specimens appear in some of Scarlatti's cantatas—and in occasional songs in slighter form than the tyrannous da capo aria, such as Caldara's " Come raggio di sol "—which foreshadows with its dignified and expressive harmonies the Schubertian treatment of song. Before Scarlatti's death in 1725 symptoms of decline had appeared. He was himself often compelled to See also:sacrifice his finer instincts to the popular demand for mere vocal display. A race of singers, who were virtuosi rather than artists, dominated the taste of the public, and forced composers to furnish opportunities in each role for a full display of their See also:powers. An opera was expected to provide for each favourite five kinds of aria! (aria cantabile, aria di portamento, aria di mezzo carattere, aria parlante and aria d' agilita). It was not long before easier and more obvious types of melody, expressing easier and more obvious feelings, became the See also:fashion. The varied forms of accompaniment, in which a See also:good contrapuntal See also:bass had been a conspicuous feature, were wasted upon a public which came to hear vocalists, not music; and stereotyped figures, of the kind which second-rate art after the first half of the 18th century has made only too familiar, took the place - of sound contrapuntal workmanship, till the Italian school, which had stood as a See also:model for the world, became identified with all that was trivial, insipid, conventional, melodramatic. Not that the Italian tendency in the direction of mere tunefulness was in itself either unhealthy or unworthy. It was indeed a necessary reaction from the severe earlier style, as soon as that style began to lose its earnestness and sincerity, and to pass into See also:cold and calculating formalism. But the spirit of shallowness and frivolity which accompanied the reaction involved the transference of musical supremacy from Italy to Germany, the only country, which, while accepting what was necessary to it of Italian influences, steadily remained true to its own ideals. Before speaking of German song, it is necessary to glance at what was being done outside of Italy in the 17th century. Reference has already been made to the French as pioneers in establishing solo song to lute accompaniment, which here, as in Italy, originated in adaptations of polyphonic compositions. But in France from the first the main influence was derived from popular sources. the native folk-song and the See also:vaudeville, the ditties of country and of town. In both that See also:union of See also:grace, simplicity and charm, characteristic of the French nation, tended to produce an art of dainty unpretentious attractiveness, in strong contrast to the serious and elaborate Italian work. It preserved these characteristics in spite of the artificial atmosphere of the French See also:court, in which it mainly flourished up to the time of the Revolution, in spite too of the somewhat different influences which might have been expected to affect it, derived from opera, the See also:mania for which did not, as in Italy, kill the smaller branch of vocal music. Brunettes, musettes, minuets, vaudevilles, bergerettes, pastourelles, as the airs de cour were styled according to the nature of the poetry to which they were attached, may be found in Weckerlin's Echos du temps passe, but the reader must beware of judging the real character of these songs from that which they assume under the hands of the modern arranger.
With the latter part of the 18th century came in the languid and sentimental See also:romance, in which the weaker phases of Italian melody are felt as an enervating influence. The romance became after the Revolution the most popular form of polite song, leading by degrees to that purely melodious type of which See also:Gounod may be considered the best representative, and which other composers, such as See also:Godard, See also:Massenet, See also:Widor, have been for the most part content to follow and develop, leaving to more adventurous See also:spirits the excitement of exploring less obviously accessible regions.
In England, as in France and Italy, the beginning of the 17th century brought into existence solo song. Its beginnings have already been alluded to in speaking of the songs of Rosseter, Jones, Campion and Dowland. The work of H. Lawes, and his contemporaries, Wiliam Lawes, Coleman and See also: A See also:gem here and there, such as " Gather ye Rosebuds " (W. Lawes), is the student's See also:reward for a See also:mass of uninspired, though not ungraceful, work in which is to be noted an See also:attempt to come to closer quarters with poetry, by " following as closely as they could the rhythmical outlines of non-musical speech: they listened to their poet friends reciting their own verses and then tried to produce artificially exact imitations in musical notes " (Ernest Walker, History of Music in England, p. 130), producing what was neither good melody nor good declamation. Such tentative work, in spite of See also:Milton's See also:sonnet to H. Lawes, could only have a passing See also:vogue, especially with a See also:Purcell so near at hand to show the world the difference between See also:talent and genius, between amateurish effort and the realized conceptions of a master of his See also:craft. Songs like " Let the dreadful Engines " and " Mad Bess of See also:Bedlam " reach a level of dramatic intensity and declamatory power, which is not surpassed by the best work of contemporary Italian composers. " I attempt from love's sickness to See also:fly " is so familiar in its quiet beauty that we are apt to forget that melodies so perfectly proportioned were quite new to English art (though Dr See also:Blow's " The Self-banished " deserves fully to stand with it side by side). Monteverde's" Lament of Ariadne " has already been alluded to. It is interesting to contrast its emotional force, obtained by daring See also:defiance of rule, with the equally intense, but more See also:sublime pathos of Purcell's " Lament of See also:Dido," in which song a ground bass is used throughout. The " See also:Elegy on the death of Mr John Playford " (quoted in full by Dr Walker, p. 176 of his history) exhibits the same feature and the same mastery of treatment. The " See also:Morning Hymn " is scarcely less remarkable, and has likewise a ground bass. Purcell died in 1695; Bach and See also:Handel were then but ten years old, and Scarlatti had still thirty years to live—facts of which the significance may be left to speak for itself. It is among the ironies of musical history that so great a beginning was not followed up. There are echoes of Purcell in the See also:generation that succeeded him, in See also:Croft, Greene, See also:Boyce and See also:Arne: but they quickly died away. The genius of Handel first and of Mendelssohn later seem to have prevented English-men from thinking musically for themselves. At least this is the orthodox explanation: but it should be See also:borne in mind that a See also:list of English composers, who have been willing to sacrifice ease and prosperity to a life of devotion to artistic ideals, would be exceedingly difficult to draw up and would certainly not include many of the best-known names. From the death of Purcell to the Victorian era there is no consistent development of artistic song that is See also:worth recording in detail. The only songs that have survived are of the melodious order; of these Arne contributes several that are still acceptable for an air of freshness and gracefulness which marks them as his own. " Where the See also:Bee sucks " and " Blow, blow, See also:thou See also:Winter Wind " are typical of his style at its best, as " The Soldier tired of See also:War's Alarms " is typical of it at its worst. Song writers that followed him, See also:Shield, See also:Hook, Dibdin, See also:Storace, See also:Horn, See also:Linley (the See also:elder) and Bishop, were all prolific melodists, who have each left a certain number of popular songs by which their names are remembered, and which are still pleasant enough to be heard occasionally; but there is no attempt to advance in any new direction, no hint that song could have any other See also:mission than to gratify the public taste for tuneful melodies allied to whatever poetry—pastoral, bacchanalian, patriotic or sentimental—lay readiest to hand. The musical genius of Germany, which has created for the world the highest _ forms as yet known of See also:symphony, oratorio and opera, is not less remarkable as the originator t}See also:erman of the Lied—the term by which are most easily progress. conveyed the modern conceptions of ideal song. Germany is moreover the only country in which in orderly and progressive development the art of song may be traced from the simple medieval Volkslied to the elaborate productions of See also:Schubert, See also:Schumann and See also:Brahms. If Germany is See also:united to the rest of Europe in her debt to Italy, still her final conceptions of song belong to herself alone. And these conceptions have more profoundly influenced the rest of Europe than any Italian conception ever influenced Germany. When the rest of Europe was content with the vapid outpourings of Italian and pseudo-Italian puerilities, an acute observer could have read the signs in Germany, from which the See also:advent of a Schubert might have been foretold. The student therefore is more profitably employed in studying the phases of song-development in Germany than in any other country. German ideals and German methods of technique have permeated the best modern song-work of countries differing as widely in idiom as See also:Russia, See also:Norway, France and England. It is not necessary to dwell, except in very general terms, upon German song of the 17th century. There had been no development corresponding with that which produced the airs de cour of France and the ayres of England. The very literature necessary for such development was wanting. Indeed German art was too profoundly affected by the spirit which produced the See also:Reformation to develop freely in secular directions. Even in the domain of the Volkslied the sacred songs can scarcely have been less numerous that, the secular; and at the Reformation adaptations of secular airs to sacred words constituted borrowings on a very large scale. In the 17th century the work of the Italian monodists was bound eventually to stimulate German composers to make songs, but their main interest lay in larger choral-instrumental works, in which solo songs naturally appear, not in song as an independent branch of art. A good general view of such isolated songs as appeared can be obtained from Reimann's collections Das deutsche geistliche Lied and Das deutsche Lied (See also:Simrock). In spite of some stiffness and awkwardness, these 17th-century songs exhibit a loftiness of aim, a touching earnestness and sincerity, which mark them off as quite distinct from any work done elsewhere at the same time. On the other hand there is not that sure grasp of their material, nor the melodic and declamatory power, which make Purcell in England stand out pre-eminently as the greatest song composer of the 17th century. The treatment of the aria by Bach and Handel is discussed in separate articles (see ARIA; BACH; HANDEL), which render unnecessary any further comment here. Nor need we pause to consider the vastly inferior work of lesser composers such as Telemann, Marpurg and See also: A. P. Schulz, Reichhardt, Berger and Zelter, can easily do so by consulting Hartel's Liederlexicon (Leipzig, 1867) or one of a number of similar publications. Side by side with the outpouring of somewhat obvious and sentimental melodiousness, which such volumes reveal, it must be remembered that the attention of greater men to instrumental composition, the growing power to compose for keyed instruments (which began to replace the lute in the middle of the 17th century), and the See also:mechanical improvements, through which See also:spinet, See also:clavichord and See also:harpsichord were advancing toward the modern See also:pianoforte, were preparing the way for the modern Lied, in which the pianoforte accompaniment was to play an increasingly important part. C. P. E. Bach (d. 1788) alone of his contemporaries gave serious attention to lyrical song, selecting the best poetry he could get hold of, and aspiring to something beyond merely tuneful melody. The real outburst of song had to wait for the inspiration which came with See also:Goethe and See also:Schiller. It is unfortunate that See also:Haydn and Mozart, pre-eminently endowed with every See also:gift that makes for perfect song except that of literary discernment, should have left us so little of real value. There is indeed much to admire in some of Haydn's canzonets, of which " My See also:Mother bids me bind my See also:Hair " fully deserves its continued popularity, while Mozart's " Schlafe mein Prinzchen "—if it is Mozart's—and a few others, like these in simple strophic form, are isolated treasures which we could not afford to lose. But in only two songs by Mozart, " Abendempfindung " and " Das Veilchen," is the goal, to which the art was to advance, clearly discerned and in the latter case perfectly attained. Both are durchcomponirt, that is, theyfollow the words in detail; in both the general spirit, as well as each isolated point of beauty in the verses, is seized and portrayed with unerring insight. "Abendempfindung " is indeed seriously marred by some carelessness in accentuation (worse examples may be seen in " An Chloe ") and by annoying repetition of words, due to the development of the melody into a formal and effective climax. In the See also:process the See also:balance of the poem is destroyed, and the atmosphere of suffused warmth and tenderness, which pervades the rest of the song, is almost lost. The lyrical See also:mood passes into one in which the operatic aria is suggested on the one hand, and on the other the formality of instrumental methods of developing melody. Not till Schubert were these traditions, fatal to the pure lyric, finally overthrown, and the conditions of true union between music and poetry perfectly realized. In " Das Veilchen " however, where Mozart touched a. poem that was worthy of his genius and appealed to his extra-ordinarily fine dramatic instinct, he produced a masterpiece—rightly regarded as the first perfect specimen of the durchcomponirtes Lied. Every incident in the See also:flower's See also:story is minutely followed, with a detailed pictorial and dramatic treatment (involving several changes of key, contrasts between major and minor, variations of rhythm and melody, declamatory or recitative passages) which was quite new to the art. The accompaniment too takes its full See also:share, illustrating each incident with exquisite See also:fancy, delicacy and discretion—and all with no violence done to the form of the poem. With See also:Beethoven song was suddenly exalted to a place among the highest branches of composition. Taken in hand with the utmost seriousness by the greatest musician of the age and associated by him for the most part with lyrical poetry of a high order, it could at last raise its See also:head, and, freed from the conventional formalities of the See also:salon, look a larger world confidently in the face. It cannot, however, be admitted that Beethoven, in spite of several noble songs, was an ideal song composer. His genius moved more easily in the field of abstract music. The forms of poetry were to him rather a hindrance than a help. His tendency is to press into his melodies more meaning than the words will See also:bear. The very qualities in fact which make his instrumental melodies so inspiring tell against his songs. Though his stronger See also:critical instinct kept him as a rule from the false accentuation which marred some of the work of Haydn and Mozart, yet, like them, he often failed to See also:escape from the instrumentalist's point of view, especially in the larger song-forms. The concluding melody of " Busselied " would be equally effective played as a See also:violin solo: the same might be said of the final movements of " See also:Adelaide " and of the otherwise noble See also:cycle " An See also:die ferne Geliebte "—movements in which the words have to adapt themselves as well as they can to the exigencies of thematic development, and to submit to several displacements and tiresome repetitions. In songs of a See also:solemn or deeply emotional nature Beethoven is at his best, as in that cycle, to sacred words of See also:Gellert, of which " Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur " stands as a lasting See also:monument of simple but expressive grandeur, in " Trocknet nicht," in " Partenza," " In questa tomba," in the first of his four settings of Goethe's " Nur wer die Sehnsucht kennt," and more than all, in the cycle " An die ferne Geliebte," which represents a further stage reached in song on the road marked out by Mozart in " Das Veilchen." We have left behind the See also:pretty artificialities so dear to the 18th century, that play around fictitious shepherds and shepherdesses, and entered the field of deeper human feeling with the surrounding influences upon it of nature and romance. The new spirit of the age, represented in German poetry by the lyrics of See also:Burger, See also:Voss, See also:Claudius and Halty, members of the famous Gottinger Hainbund, and more notably by those of Goethe and Schiller, communicates itself in Beethoven to song, which now assumes its rightful position of See also:joint interpreter. It needs no deep study of Beethoven's songs to perceive that the accompaniment has assumed, especially in the " Liederkreis, " an importance, immeasurably greater than in the songs of any previous composer. It begins to See also:act the part of the See also:chorus in Greek See also:drama and tc provide both a background and a commentary to the central personages. The tentative and uninspired work of Zelter, Reichardt, Schulz and others, when they attempted anything beyond a merely tuneful melody in the strophic form, may be passed over, but a word is due to J. R. Zumsteeg, because in spite of the sometimes childish simplicity of his work he yet, in the kind of use which he made of modulation as a means of lyrical expression, anticipated, more than any other composer of songs, one of the chief features of the greatest song writer of all ages, See also:Franz Schubert. Schubert's " See also:Erlkonig " was written a few months before Beethoven's " Liederkreis," " Gretchen am Spinnrade " about a See also:year before the " Erlkonig." He was eighteen when he composed the latter, in 1815. Lyrical song, divorced from all hindering elements and associations, whether of salon or See also:theatre, was here at the See also:threshold of his short career in almost full maturity and plenitude of power. It is sufficiently remark-able that a lad with so little See also:education should have composed such music: it is more astonishing still that he should have penetrated with such unerring insight into the innermost secrets of the best poetry. Two of the necessary qualifications for a great song composer were thus at last united. Schubert possessed the third—a knowledge of the human voice, partly intuitive, partly the result of his experience as a chorister boy. The beauty of his melodies is scarcely more striking than the gratefulness of their purely vocal qualities. The technique of singing had indeed been understood for nearly two centuries; but Schubert was the first to divine fully its emotional range, and to dissociate it in lyrical work from all traditions of the schools. From the beginning to the end of his career he never penned a note or a phrase because it was vocally effective. What he wrote for the voice to sing was there because for him the poetry could not have it otherwise. This was inherent in his method of working, in which he relied implicitly upon his musical inspiration for a response, usually instantaneous, to the inordinate receptivity of his mind to the impressions of poetry. To read through a poem was for him not only to seize its innermost significance, and every salient point of language or of form, but also to visualize the scheme by which both the whole and the parts could be translated and glorified through the medium of music. As the See also:singer Vogl, the first of his profession to appreciate him, remarked, " He composed in a See also:state of clairvoycrnce." Hence the impossibility of summarizing in a short space the innovations he introduced, for new poems invariably suggested new types of song. His settings of Goethe's lyrics (that is, the best of them) differ as essentially from his settings to those of W. See also: His best level is so often attained as to make attacks on points which he has missed—as in some of the songs from Wilhelm Meister—somewhat beside the mark. It is usually the work of enthusiasts who wish to exalt others at Schubert's expense. For further details the reader is referred to the brilliant See also:essay on Song with which Mr Hadow concludes vol. v. of the Oxford History of Music. It must suffice here to point out in a general way that in wideness of See also:scope and aim, in intensity of expression Schubert produced the same transformation in the lyrical field that Beethoven had produced in the larger forms of sonata, See also:string , quartet and symphony. Beethoven's work was necessary before Schubert could arise, but Schubert's conceptions and methods were the fruit of his own genius. Of his contemporaries Loewe deserves mention for his singular success in overcoming the difficulties involved in setting long ballads to music. To preserve homogeneity in a form in which simple narration presents perpetually shifting changes of See also:action, of picture, of mood, is a problem which Schubert himself only once triumphantly solved. See also:Weber contributed nothing to song, except in his operas, of permanent value, beyond a few strophic songs of a popular nature. He disqualified himself for higher work by that singular preference for vapid and trivial See also:verse which so often led Haydn and Mozart astray. Mendelssohn's literary tastes took him to the best poetry, but he made but little attempt as a rule, to penetrate beyond its superficial and obvious import. His own lovable See also:personality is far more clearly revealed in his songs than the spirit of his poets. See also:Differences of literary style affected the style of his music perhaps less than that of any other distinguished composer. He attained his highest level in " Auf Flugeln des Gesanges," the first of the two songs to Zuleika, and Nachtlied. It is noteworthy that there is no trace of Schubert's influence. Had Schubert not lived, Mendelssohn's songs would have been just the same. Hence in spite of graceful and flowing melodies, elegant but simple in form, and instinct with that polished taste and charm of manner which endeared both him-self and his works to his own generation, his songs have exercised no permanent influence upon the art. Their immediate influence, it is true, was enormous: it is felt occasionally in Schumann, only too often in See also:Robert Franz, and a See also:host of lesser composers in many countries besides his own, such as See also:Gade, Lindblad, Sterndale See also:Bennett, and others who need not be specified. Of far greater importance is the work of Robert Schumann, its expression highly organized form, was alien to See also:Liszt's genius, whose polyphonic methods of technique and peculiarly See also:epigram- matic style enabled him to treat complex phases of thought and feeling which had hardly become prominent in Schubert's time with quite extraordinary success. Both by temperament and by choice he is identified with the so-called romantic movement, a movement in which both poetry and music have tended more and more to become rather a See also:personal See also:revelation than " a See also:criticism of life." Thus with Schubert the note of universality, the abiding mark of the classical composers, is stronger than the impress of his own personality. With Schumann the See also:reverse is the case. If the romantic movement gave a new impetus of vast importance both to music and literature, yet it had its weaker side in extremes of sensibility, which were not always See also:equivalent to strength of feeling. Mendelssohn's songs admittedly err on the side of pure sentimentality—Schumann, with Liszt, See also:Jensen and Franz, frequently betrays the same weakness, but his best work, his settings to Heine (especially the Dichterliebe), the See also:Eichendorff " Liederkreis," See also:Chamisso's " Frauenliebe u. Leben " (with some reservations), besides a See also:fair number of other songs, such as " Widmung," " Der Nussbaum," " Ihre Stimme," and his one completely successful ballad, " Die beiden Grenadiere," are strong in feeling and full of poetic and imaginary qualities of the very highest order. The new poetry called for new methods of treatment. These Schumann, instinctively an experimenter, provided, first, by a closer attention to the minutiae of declamation than had hitherto been attempted—and herein syncopation and suspension furnished possibilities unsuspected even by Schubert —secondly by increasing the role of the pianoforte accompaniment—and in this he was helped on the one hand by novel methods of technique, of which himself and See also:Chopin were the chief originators, and on the other by his loving study of Bach, which imparted a polyphonic treatment, quite new to song. In nearly all Schubert's songs, and in quite all of Mendelssohn's, the melody allotted to the voice maintained its position of supremacy. In Schumann it not infrequently becomes the secondary See also:factor, the main role of lyric interpreter passing to the accompaniment, as in " Es ist ein Floten u. Geigen " or " Roselein." He also gave quite a new prominence to the opening and closing instrumental symphonies, which become in his hands no merely formal introduction or conclusion but an integral part of the whole conception and fabric of the Lied. This may be illustrated by many numbers of the Dichterliebe, but most remarkable is the final See also:page, in which the pianoforte, after the voice has stopped, sums up the whole tenour of the cycle. This feature has been seized upon by many subsequent composers, but by few with Schumann's rare insight and judgment. In Franz, for instance, the concluding symphony is often introduced without necessity, and becomes a mere irritating mannerism. In Brahms however it is developed, both at the opening and close of many songs, to an importance and pregnancy of meaning which no other composer has attained. A third point in Schumann's method is his fondness for short interrupted phrases (often repeated at different levels) in place of the developed Schubertian melodies; it is alluded to here because of the great See also:extension of the practice by later composers, too often, as in the case of Franz, without Schumann's tact. On many grounds, then, Schumann may be regarded as having widely extended the conception of the Lied; his example has encouraged later composers to regard no lyric poetry as too subtle for musical treatment. Unfortunately in presenting complexity of mood Schumann was not invariably careful to pre-serve structural solidity. Many later composers have followed the occasional looseness of design which is his See also:fault, without approaching the beauty of spirit, in which he stands alone. A bold experimenter in song was Franz Liszt, whose wayward genius, with its irrepressible See also:bent towards the theatrical and melodramatic, was never at home within the limits of a short lyric. It is true that there is sincerity of feeling, if not of the deepest kind, in " Es muss ein Wunderbares sein " and " t}ber alien Gipfeln "; but concentrated emotion, which involves for which is more truly represented in songs like " Die See also:Lorelei," " Kennst du das See also:Land," " Am Rhein "—in which are presented a series of pictures loosely connected, giving the impression of See also:clever extemporizations on See also:paper. It is not sufficiently recognized that such work is far easier to produce than a successful strophic song, even of the simplest kind, because the composer ignores the fact that a formal lyric implies formal music, and that the most formal poetry is often the most emotional. Critics, who measure the advance of song by the increase in number of those that are durchcomponirt, and the decreasing output of those which have the same music to each stanza, are in danger of forgetting the best qualities both of music and of poetry. Formless music never interpreted a finely formed poem, and unless the durehcomponirtes Lied has more form instead of less than the strophic song, it is artistically valueless. The popularity therefore of " Die Lorelei " is not so much a See also:tribute to Liszt's genius as an example of the extent to which gifted singers and undiscerning critics can mislead the public. Mere See also:scene See also:painting, however vivid, however atmospheric—and these qualities may be conceded to Liszt and to others who have followed his example—takes its place upon the See also:lower planes of art. The admiration expressed by Liszt and Wagner for the songs of Robert Franz, and the cordial welcome extended by Schumann to those which first made their . appearance, have led to an undue estimate of their importance in many quarters. They are characterized by extreme delicacy both of feeling and of workmanship, but the ingenuity of his counterpoint, which he owed to his intimate knowledge of Bach and Handel, cannot conceal the frequent poverty of inspiration in his melodic phrases nor the absence of genuine constructive power. To build a song upon one or two phrases repeated at different levels and coloured by changing harmonies to suit the requirements of the poetic text (as in " See also:Fur Musik " and " Du bist elend ") is a dangerous substitute for the power to formulate large and expressive melodies. But it is the method which Franz instinctively preferred and elaborated with skill. His songs are mostly very short and in the strophic form, some alteration being nearly always reserved to give point to the last verse. His tricks of style and See also:procedure so quickly become familiar as to exhaust the See also:patience even of the most sympathetic student. But the sincerity of his aims, the idealistic and supersensitive purity of his mind (which banished as far as possible even the dramatic element from his lyrics), its receptiveness to the beauties of nature and all that is chaste, See also:tender and refined in human character render his songs an important contribution to our knowledge of the intimate side of German feeling, and compensate in some degree for the lack of the larger qualities of style and See also:imagination. All his best qualities are represented in the beautiful setting of See also:Lenau's " Stille Sicherheit." Those who care to study his limitations may compare his settings of Heine's lyrics with the masterpieces of Schumann in the same field, or the dulness of his " Verborgenheit " (See also:Morike) with the romantic fervour imparted to that poem by the later genius of Hugo See also:Wolf. A higher value than is usually conceded attaches to the songs of See also:Peter See also:Cornelius, a friend of Liszt and Wagner, but a follower of neither. Before he came under their influence he had under-gone a severe course of contrapuntal training, so that his work, though essentially modern in spirit, has that stability of structure which makes for permanence. He was, moreover, an accomplished linguist, a brilliant essayist, and a poet. That perfect See also:fusion between poetry and music, which since Schubert has increasingly been the ideal of German song, is realized in an exceptional manner when, with Cornelius as with Wagner, librettist and musician are one See also:person. More exquisite declamation is hardly to be found in the whole range of song than in the subtly imaginative " Auftrag," whilst for See also:nobility of feeling, apart from technical excellencies of the highest order, the " Weihnachtslieder," the " Brautlieder " and much of the sacred cycle " Vater Unser," are hardly surpassed even by Schumahh at his best, and point to Cornelius as one of the most beautiful and original spirits of the 19th century. In the song-work of the 19th century, though Schubert remains the See also:rock upon which it has been built, Schumann represents the most directly inspiring influence, even when, as in the case of Adolph Jensen (whose spontaneously melodious and graceful, if not very deep, songs deserve mention), there are importations from such widely divergent sources as those of Mendelssohn and Wagner. The application of the principles of Wagnerian music-drama to lyrical work, allied, as was natural, with the exaggerations and unconventionalities of Liszt and See also:Berlioz, was sooner or later bound to come, bound also for a time to issue in confusion; to See also:rescue song from which was the work of two men of genius, who, though approaching the task from standpoints removed by the whole distance of See also:pole to pole, may be considered as placing the See also:crown of final achievement upon the aspirations of 19th-century song—Hugo Wolf and Johannes Brahms. Wolf exhibits an entirely unconventional and original style. He is as untroubled by tradition as Schubert, whom he resembles not often, as in " Fussreise," and " Der Gartner," in pure melodiousness, but in the intensity of his power to penetrate to the very heart of poetry. To him may also be most fitly applied the epithet clairvoyant. He is the first who published songs for voice and pianoforte, not songs with pianoforte accompaniment, thus finally asserting the identity of singer and accompanist in true lyrical interpretation. The unerring sagacity of Brahms discerned that the possibilities of song on the lines set by Schubert were far from being exhausted: his See also:practical mind preferred to develop those possibilities rather than to seek after See also:strange and novel methods, conforming thus in song to his practice in other branches of composition. A broad melodic outline is for him an essential feature: equally essential is a fine contrapuntal bass. In form the See also:majority of his songs follow the orthodox A B A pattern, the central portion being so organized as to offer, with the least possible introduction of new unrelated material, a heightened contrast with the opening portion by means of new treatment and new tonalities and at the same time to justify itself by producing the mood in which the return to the opening portion is felt as a logical necessity. See also:Chromatic effects in Brahms's scheme of melody are rarely introduced till the middle See also:section, the opening being almost invariably diatonic. It must however be admitted that Brahms's formal perfection involves occasion-ally an awkward handling of words, and that in a few instances (see Magelone-lieder, Nos. 3 and 6), they are frankly sacrificed to that formal development of his material which has been criticized in the cases of Mozart and Beethoven. No part of his songs deserves closer study than the few bars of instrumental prelude and conclusion, in which is enshrined the very essence of his conception of a poem. It may almost be said that, since Schumann set the example, the first and the last word has passed from the voice to the instrument. Accompanist, like singer, must understand poetry as well as music: but with no composer is his responsibility greater than with Brahms. Complete mastery in close organization of form was allied in Brahms not only with the warmth and tenderness of romance, but with the imagination and insight of a profound thinker. Concentration of style and of thought have nowhere in the whole history of song been combined on a See also:plane so high as that which is reached, with all perfection of melodic and harmonic beauty, in " Schwermuth," " Der See also:Tod das ist die kuhle Nacht," " Alit vierzig Jahren," " Am Kirchhof," " 0 ,wusst' ich See also:dock den Weg zuruck " and the " Vier ernste Gesange," which closed the list of his 197 songs. The See also:alliance to song of so dangerous a See also:companion as See also:philosophy, or at any rate of thoughts which are philosophical rather than lyrical, proved no obstacle to Brahms's equal success in the See also:realm of romance. This side of his genius may be illustrated by numerous songs from the Magelone cycle (notably " Wie froh and frisch " and " Ruhe, suss, Liebchen ") and by others, of which " Liebestreu," " Die Mainacht," " Feldeinsamkeit," " Wie rafft' ich mich auf in der Nacht,"" Minnelied " and " Wir wandelten " are a few examples picked at See also:random. It has already been indicated that Brahms was a deep student of Schubert. If he had not Schubert's See also:absolute spontaneity of melody, he restored it to its Schubertian place of supreme importance. In spite of all the tendencies of his age he never shirked that supreme test of a composer, the power to originate and organize melody: but it is melody often of a type so severe in its outline and proportions as to repel those hearers who are unable to attain to his level of thought and feeling. All mere prettiness and elegance are as alien to his nature as even the slightest approach to sentimental weakness on the one hand, or to realistic scene-painting on the other, so that for the world at large his popularity is jeopardized by an attitude which is felt to be uncompromisingly lofty and severe. It has hardly yet had time to reconcile itself to the union of modern lyrical poetry with a style whose elaborate contrapuntal texture differs as much from the delicate polyphony of Schumann as that in its turn differed from the broad harmonic system of Schubert. But that Brahms was never difficult without reason, or elaborate when he might have been simple, appears plainly from the preference he felt for his slighter songs in the Volkstumlich style and form, rather than for those which were durchcomponirt. He was strongly influenced by the Volkslieder of his country, the words of which he loved to repeat to himself, as they suggested ideas even for his instrumental compositions. His arrangements of Volkslieder mark an epoch in that field of work.' In the history of song Brahms's name is likely to stand for the closing of a chapter. It is difficult to conceive of more complete wdrk on lines that are essentially classical. The soundest traditions find in him their See also:justification and their consummation. He has enshrined the best thought and the noblest feeling of his age in forms where elaboration and complexity of detail serve essential purposes of interpretation, and are never used as a brilliant artifice to conceal See also:foundations which are insecure.
It is not proposed to discuss the work and tendencies of contemporary German composers—of whom See also:Felix Weingartner (b. 1863), Max Reger (b. 1873) and See also:Richard See also:Strauss have attracted the largest share of attention. The above See also:summary, though necessarily incomplete and confined only to the most conspicuous names, may yet provide some points of view from which the songs of other countries than Germany may be regarded, especially those in which German conceptions and German methods of technique have been dominant factors. Actual settings of German lyrics figure largely in the works of many non-German composers, and these it is hard to See also:judge except by German See also:standards. But, strongly as German influence has been felt in Russia, for instance, in Norway and in See also:Finland, yet the last half century has seen the rise of more distinctly national schools of song in all these countries, and to this result the cult of the folk-song has very largely contributed. See also:Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov, See also:Borodin, See also:Balakirev, Cesar Cui (b. 1835), and See also:Moussorgsky in Russia, Nordraak (1842–1866) and See also:Grieg in Norway, Sibelius (b. 1865) in Finland, are conspicuous names in this connexion.
The Latin countries have, as is natural, been but little subject to German influences; of these France alone seems to be working her way towards a See also:solution of artistic problems Modern which has interest for those who live beyond her French See also:borders and which bears emphatically her own See also: mark. The melodious style of Gounod, which has so powerfully affected composers like Massenet, Godard and Widor, has 'Their value may be tested by comparing them with the small See also:volume containing arrangements by R. Franz, which are sympathetically done but without inspiration, with those of Tappert, which are models of what such things ought not to be, and with the dull, uninviting work of A. See also:Saran. Many of Reimann's arrangements, however, deserve cordial recognition as both sympathetic and scholarly. One fact emerges clearly from the study of folk-song arrangements, in Germany and elsewhere, that success depends upon qualities which are as rare as, and are seldom dissociated from, the power of original composition. Only a great composer can be a great arranger. begun to yield during the last See also:quarter of a century to tendencies which correspond closely with those of the impressionist movements in French literature and painting. The deeper side of the movement, in which a strong element of See also:mysticism plays an important part, is represented in the best songs of Cesar See also:Franck, See also:Faure and See also:Bruneau, a notable See also:group of composers, whose occasional extravagances are atoned for by original impressions of nature in her more unusual moods, and by much that arrests attention both in thought and style. The songs of Duparc (b. 1848) and See also:Vincent d'Indy likewise repay study. Nothing can be clearer than that traditional methods were inadequate, if modern French poetry was to find interpretation in the See also:sister sphere of music; but how far the work of composers such as those named is likely to be regarded as final, it is pre-mature to ask. The world had hardly had time to feel at home with them before it was called upon to face what it is difficult not to regard as representing the extreme limits of impressionistic style in See also:Debussy. We are still too much accustomed to melody and rhythm, to harmonies that have some intelligible principle in their successions, to judge securely of music which is neither melodious nor rhythmical nor in the accepted sense harmonious. We are still too much accustomed to music regulated by analysable See also:laws to feel at ease with music that seems, at any rate at present, to acknowledge none. Whether the work of Debussy is the beginning of a new epoch the future alone can decide, but it is permissible to feel apprehensive of an art which is based upon impressions rather than upon convictions; and the value of impressions is apt to be measured more by the degree in which they are fugitive, elusive, evanescent, or merely See also:peculiar to the composer's temperament, than by the relation which they bear to permanent elements in nature or humanity. Hence in the modern school of song-writers, which finds its See also:culmination in Debussy, the quality of unselfconsciousness is the one which seems most difficult for them to attain. In French art we are too often reminded how close the sublime is to the ridiculous, the dramatic to the theatrical, pathos to See also:bathos, truth to See also:paradox. Even in the quieter pictures we are conscious of a forced atmosphere, an unnatural See also:calm, not the abiding See also:peace of a landscape by See also:Corot or See also:Millet. Lastly, the See also:opinion of Bruneau (La Musique francaise, p. 233) that prose will in time supplant poetry in drama and song is, at least to those to whom form is still an essential element of beauty, a disquieting See also:omen for the future. The best qualities of the French nation, its unaffected gaiety, its sincerity, grace, See also:humour, pathos, tenderness, are far more touchingly and truthfully revealed in the simple melodies of the country-side—or in the less pretentious songs (of which Bruneau and Massenet have given examples, as well as many others) formed upon their model. Limitations of space do not form the only reason for dealing in a cursory manner with English songs of the 19th century. Modern A more valid one is to be found in the absence, English until its two closing "decades, of great names to song. which can be attached the history of any orderly development, of any well-conceived and definite ideals. The authors of the very limited number of good songs are too often the authors of others in larger quantities which are See also:bad, and that not in every case owing to failure of inspiration but to a lowering of ideals in order to gratify the tastes of an unintelligent public on the one hand, and the demands of exacting publishers on the other. That a healthier art might have arisen is indicated by the presence of such songs as See also:Hatton's " To Anthea," Loder's unexpectedly fine setting of " The Brooklet " (the words of which Schubert had already immortalized in its original German version as " Wohin "), See also:Sullivan's fresh and original settings of several Shakespearian lyrics, and of Tennyson's uninspired cycle of verses entitled " The Songs of the Wrens," and See also:Clay's " I'll sing thee songs of Araby." The name of Sterndale Bennett stands out as that of a composer who remained steadfastly true to his ideals. His output was indeed a small one, and covered a somewhat limited range of style and feeling: but the thought, like the workmanship, is always of delicate and beautiful quality. Though Mendelssohn's influence is apparent he has a See also:touch which is all his own. " To Chloe in sickness," " Forget-me-not," " See also:Gentle Zephyr " and " Sing, See also:Maiden, sing," have certainly not yet lost their charm. Stern-See also:dale Bennett marks the beginning of higher ideals in English song—but it is only within the last twenty-five years that we have begun to see their realization, owing to the training of many English musicians in German schools and to the increasing familiarity of the musical public with the best German Lieder. The See also:lead has been taken by Parry and See also:Stanford—composers who have published large numbers of songs in great variety of styles, and with See also:uniform seriousness of aim and treatment. Parry's delightfully fresh early work is represented at its best in " A Spring Song," " A Contrast," and " Why does See also:azure See also:deck the skies?" The transition to a later manner is marked by the four anacreontic odes; and several small volumes of lyrics have since made their appearance. If some of these miss the true lyrical note, of which absolute spontaneity is an essential condition, yet a lofty level of thought and workmanship is always See also:manifest, rising to highest inspiration perhaps in " When we two parted," " Through the See also:ivory See also:gate," and " I'm See also:weaving Sweet Violets." Stanford has essayed songs in many styles, suited to poems drawn from many periods, but he is most himself and most successful in Keats's weird and dramatic ballad " La Belle See also:dame sans merci," in See also:Browning's cavalier songs, in the cycle of sea songs (H. See also:Newbolt) and above all in the Irish idyll (Moira O'See also:Neill)—where in six pieces of rarest beauty the composer has revealed different phases of Irish feeling, pathos and humour with a poetical and imaginative power unequalled in British art. It is hard to imagine a more perfect alliance between poetry and music, from the general conception of each song down to the minutest detail of declamation, than is found here. As an arranger of Irish melodies—of which four volumes have been published—Stanford has also shown himself a complete master. See also:Cowen, See also:Mackenzie and See also:Elgar have contributed few songs worthy of reputations gained in larger forms of composition. Of the work done and being done by younger composers much might be said. There is activity in many directions; a cycle of songs by See also:Arthur Somervell from Tennyson's Maud is an artistic work of very real value, beautiful and original as music, and forming a highly interesting commentary upon the poem. R. See also:Vaughan See also:Williams, in the more difficult. task of setting six sonnets from Rossetti's See also:House of Life and in three of See also:Stevenson's Songs of Travel, has displayed imaginative qualities of a remarkable order. Not less original is the highly finished and poetical work of H. Walford See also:Davies. Somewhat slighter in style and thought, but instinct with true lyrical tenderness and charm, are the songs of See also:Roger Quilter, drawn mainly from the Elizabethan period, and the poems of Herrick. Various songs by See also:Maude V. See also: Its fulfilment however is likely to depend upon a change in the prevailing conditions, under which professional vocalists have a See also:financial interest in popularizing inferior productions. Good songs, apart from the initial difficulty of finding a publisher, are thus penalized from the start, whilst the larger and less instructed portion of the public, which forms its taste upon what the singers of the day provide, remains ignorant of precisely those works which are most necessary for its enlightenment. age (1852) ; Kiesewetter, Schicksale is. Beschaffenheit des weltlichen Gesanges (1841); Reissmann, Das deutsche Lied (1861; rewritten as Geschichte des deutschen Liedes, 1874) ; See also:Schneider, Das musikalische Lied (1863) ; E. Walker, History of Music in England (1907) ; W. Nagel, Geschichte der Musik in England (1894–1897); C. J. Sharp, English Folk-songs, some Conclusions (1907) ; J. Tiersot, Histoire de la chanson populaire en France (1889) ; Lavoix, La Musique frangaise (1891). Collections of songs with valuable introduction and notes (those marked with an See also:asterisk have pianoforte accompaniments): F. M. See also:Boehme, Altdeutsches Liederbuch (Breitkopf & Hartel, 1877) ; Gaston Paris and Gevaert, Chansons du X V' siecle (Paris, 1875) ; J. Tiersot, Chansons populaires des Alpes francaises (See also:Grenoble, 1903) ; De la Villemarque, Barzaz-Breiz, Chansons pop. de la Bretagne (Paris, 1867) ; *Bourgault-Ducoudray, 30 melodies pop. de la Basse-Bretagne (Paris, 1885) ; *Champfleury and Weckerlin, Chansons pop. des provinces de France (Paris, 1860) ; *Weckerlin, Echos du temps passe (3 vols., Paris, 1855), and *Chansons pop. du pays de France (2 vols. Paris, 1903); *V. D'Indy, Chansons pop. du Vivarais, op. 52 (Paris); Hjalmar Thuren, Folkesangen paa Faererne (Copenhagen, 1908) ; F. See also:van Duyse, Het oude nederlandsche Lied (The See also:Hague, 19o3–1905) ; *E. Closson, Chansons pop. des provinces beiges (See also:Brussels, 1905) ; *Bourgault-Ducoudray, 30 melodies pop. de Grece et d'orient (Paris, 1897) ; See also:Eugenie Lineff, See also:Peasant Songs of Great Russia (St See also:Petersburg and London, 1905) ; *W. Chappell, Popular Music of the Olden Time (London, 1855–1859) ; *E Wooldridge, revised edition of the above, with title Old English Popular Music (London, 1893); Folk-song Society's See also:Journals; *C. J. Sharp, Folk-songs from See also:Somerset (5 vols., Barnicott & See also:Pearce, See also:Taunton); *J. A. See also:Fuller-See also:Maitland and L. E. Broadwood, See also:County Songs (See also:Novello) ; *Sharp and See also:Baring-See also:Gould, Songs of the West (See also:Methuen) ; *L. E. Broadwood, English Traditional Songs and Carols (Boosey). (W. A. J. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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