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AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
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See also:AUGUSTINE, See also:SAINT (354-430) , one of the four See also:great fathers of the Latin See also: But he passed from one phase of thought to another, unable to find See also:satisfaction in any. See also:Manichaeism, that mixed product of Zoroastrian and Christian-gnostic elements, first enthralled him. He became a fervent member of the See also:sect, and was admitted into the class of auditors or " hearers." Manichaeism seemed to him to solve the mysteries of the See also:world, and of his own experiences by which he was perplexed. His insatiable See also:imagination See also:drew congenial See also:food from the fanciful religious world of the Manichaeans, decked out as this was with the luxuriant See also:wealth of See also:Oriental myth. His strongly See also:developed sense of a need of salvation sought satisfaction in the contest of the two principles of See also:Good and Evil, and found See also:peace, at least for the moment, in the conviction that the portions of light See also:present in him would be freed from the darkness in which they were immersed. The ideal of chastity and self-See also:restraint, which promised a foretaste of union with God, amazed him, See also:bound as he was in the fetters of sensuality and for ever shaking at these fetters. But while his moral force was not sufficient for the attainment of this ideal, gradually everything else which Manichaeism seemed tooffer him dissolved before his See also:criticism. Increasingly occupied with the exact sciences, he learnt the incompatibility of the Manichaean See also:astrology with the facts. More and more absorbed in the problems of See also:psychology, he realized the insufficiency of See also:dualism, which did not solve the ultimate questions but merely set them back. The Manichaean propaganda seemed to him invertebrate and lacking in force, and a discussion which he had with Faustus, a distinguished Manichaean See also:bishop and controversialist, See also:left him greatly disappointed. Meanwhile nine years had passed. Augustine, after See also:finishing his studies, had returned to Tagaste, where he became a teacher of See also:grammar. He must have been an excellent See also:master, who knew how to See also:influence the whole See also:personality of his pupils. It was then that See also:Alypius, who in the later stages of Augustine's life proved a true friend and See also:companion, attached himself to him. He remained in his native town little more than a year, during which time he lived with his mother, who was comforted by the bishop for the estrangement of her son from the See also:Catholic faith ("a son of so many tears cannot be lost": Confess. III. xii.§ 21), comforted also, and above all, by the famous See also:vision, which Augustine thus describes: " She saw herself See also:standing on a certain wooden See also:rule, and a shining youth coming towards her, cheerful and smiling upon her the while she grieved, and was consumed with grief: and when he had inquired of her the causes of her grief and daily tears (for the See also:sake, as is their wont, of teaching, not of learning) and she had made See also:answer that she was bewailing my perdition, he bade her be at ease, and advised her to look and observe, That where she was, there was I also.' And when she looked there, she saw me standing by her on the same rule" (Confess. III. xi.). Augustine now returned for a second time to Carthage, where he devoted himself zealously to See also:work. Thence, probably in the See also:spring of 383, he migrated to See also:Rome. His Manichaean See also:friends urged him to take this step, which was rendered easier by the licentious lives of the students at Carthage. His stay at Rome may have lasted about a year, no agreeable time for Augustine, since his patrons and friends belonged to just those Manichaean circles with which he had in the meantime entirely lost all intellectual See also:touch. He, therefore, accepted an invitation from See also:Milan, where the See also:people were in See also:search of a teacher of See also:rhetoric. At Milan the conflict within his mind in search of truth still continued. It was now that he separated himself openly from the Manichaean sect. As a thinker he came entirely under the influence of the New See also:Academy; he professed the Sceptic See also:philosophy, without being able to find in it the final conclusion of See also:wisdom. He was, however, not far from the decision. Two things determined his further development. He became acquainted with the Neo-Platonic philosophy; its See also:monism replaced the dualism, its intellectualized world of ideas the See also:materialism of Manichaeism. Here he found the admonition to seek for truth outside the material world, and from created things he learnt to recognize the invisible God; he attained the certainty that this God is, and is eternal, always the same, subject to See also:change neither in his parts nor in his motions. And while thus Augustine's metaphysical convictions were being slowly re-modelled, he met, in See also:Ambrose, bishop of Milan, a See also:man in whom See also:complete worldly culture and the See also:nobility of a ripe Christian personality were wonderfully See also:united. He heard him preach; but at first it was the orator and not the contents of the sermons that enchained him. He sought an opportunity of conversation with him, but this was not easily found. Ambrose had no leisure for philosophic discussion. He was accessible to all who sought him, but never for a moment See also:free from study or the cares of See also:duty. Augustine, as he himself tells us, used to enter without being announced, as all persons might; but after staying for a while, afraid of interrupting him, he would depart again. He continued, however, to hear Ambrose preach, and gradually the See also:gospel of divine truth and See also:grace was received into his See also:heart. He was busy with his friend Alypius in studying the Pauline epistles; certain words were driven See also:home with irresistible force to his See also:conscience. His struggle of mind became more and more intolerable, the thought of divine purity fighting in his heart with the love of the world and the flesh. That sensuality was his worst enemy he had See also:long known. The mother of his See also:child had accompanied him to Milan. When he became betrothed he dismissed her; but neither the See also:pain of this parting nor See also:consideration for his not yet marriageable See also:bride prevented him from forming a fresh connexion of the same See also:kind. Meanwhile, the determination to renounce the old life with its pleasures of sense, was ever being forced upon him with more and more distinctness. He then received a visit from a Christian compatriot named Pontitian, who told him about St See also:Anthony and the monachism in See also:Egypt, and also of a monastery near Milan. He was shaken to the depths when he learnt from Pontitian that two See also:young officials, like himself betrothed, had suddenly formed a determination to turn their backs upon the life of the world. He could no longer See also:bear to be inside the See also:house; in terrible excitement he rushed into the See also:garden; and now followed that See also:scene which he himself in the Confessions has described to us with such graphic See also:realism. He flung himself under a fig See also:tree, burst into a See also:passion of weeping, and poured out his heart to God. Suddenly he seemed to hear a See also:voice bidding him consult the divine See also:oracle: " Take up and read, take up and read." He left off weeping, See also:rose up, sought the See also:volume where Alypius was sitting, and opening it read in silence the following passage from the See also:Epistle to the See also:Romans (xiii. 13, 14): " Not in rioting and See also:drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying. But put ye on the See also:Lord Jesus Christ, and make not See also:provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof." He adds: " I had neither See also:desire nor need to read further. As I finished the See also:sentence, as though the light of peace had been poured into the heart, all the shadows of doubt dispersed. Thus hast See also:Thou converted me to Thee, so as no longer to seek either for wife or other See also:hope of the world, standing fast in that rule of faith in which Thou so many years before hadst revealed me to my mother " (in qua me ante tot annos ei revelaveras: Confess. VIII. xii. § 30).1 The conversion of Augustine, as we have been accustomed to See also:call this event, took See also:place in the See also:late summer of 386, a few See also:weeks before the beginning of the vacation. The determination to give up his See also:post was rendered easier by a See also:chest-trouble which was not without danger, and which for months made him in-capable of work. He withdrew with several companions to the See also:country See also:estate of Cassisiacum near Milan, which had been See also:lent him by a friend, and announced himself to the bishop as a See also:candidate for See also:baptism. His religious opinions were still to some extent unformed, and even his habits by no means altogether such as his great change demanded. He mentions, for example, that during this time he See also:broke himself of a See also:habit of profane See also:swearing, and in other ways sought to discipline his See also:character and conduct for the reception of the sacred rite. He received baptism the See also:Easter following, in his See also:thirty-third year, and along with him his son Adeodatus and his friend Alypius were admitted to the Church. Monica, his mother, had rejoined him, and at length rejoiced in the fulfilment of her prayers. She died at See also:Ostia, just as they were about to embark for See also:Africa, her last See also:hours being gladdened by his Christian sympathy. In the See also:account of the conversation which he had with his mother before her end, in the narrative of her See also:death and See also:burial (Confess. IX. x.-xi., §§ 23-28), Augustine's See also:literary See also:power is displayed at its highest. The See also:plan of returning home. remained for the present un- accomplished. Augustine stayed for a year in Rome, occupied in literary work, particularly in controversy.with Manichaeism. It was not until the autumn of 388 that he returned to Tagaste, probably still accompanied by his son, who, however, must have died shortly afterwards. With some friends, who joined him in devotion, he formed a small religious community, which looked to him as its See also:head. Their mode of life was not formally monastic according to any See also:special rule, but the experience of this time of seclusion was, no doubt, the basis of that monastic See also:system which Augustine afterwards sketched and which derived its name from him (see See also:AUGUSTINIANS). As may be imagined, the fame of such a convert in such a position soon spread, and invitations to a more active ecclesiastical life came to him from many quarters. He 1 The reference is to the vision described above. shrank from the responsibility, but his destiny was not to be avoided. After two and a See also:half years spent in retirement he went to See also:Hippo, to see a Christian friend, who desired to converse with him as to his See also:design of quitting the world and devoting himself to a religious life. The Christian community there being in want of a See also:presbyter and Augustine being present at the See also:meeting, the people unanimously See also:chose him and he was ordained to the presbyterate. A few years afterwards, 395 or 396, he was made coadjutor to the bishop, and finally became bishop of the see. Henceforth Augustine's life is filled up with his ecclesiastical labours, and is more marked by the See also:series of his numerous writings and the great controversies in which they engaged him than by anything else. His life was spent in a perpetual strife. During the first half this had been against himself; but even when others stepped into his place, it always seems as though a See also:part of Augustine himself were incarnate in them. Augustine had early distinguished himself as an author. He had written several philosophical See also:treatises, and, as teacher of rhetoric at Carthage, he had composed a work De pulchro et apto, which is no longer extant. Whenat Cassisiacum he had combated the See also:scepticism of the New Academy (Contra Academicos), had treated of the " blessed life " (De Vita beata) , of the significance of evil in the See also:order of the world (De ordine), of the means for the elucidation of spiritual truths (Soliloquia). Shortly before the time of his baptism, he was occupied with the question of the See also:immortality of the soul (De immortalitate animae), and in Rome and at Tagaste he was still engaged with philosophical problems, as is evidenced by the writings De quantitate animae and De magistro. In all these treatises is apparent the influence of the Neo-Platonic method of thought, which for him, as for so many others, had become the See also:bridge to the Christian. While still in Rome, he began to come to a reckoning with the Manichaeans, and wrote two books on the morals of the Catholic Church and of the Manichaeaps (De moribus ecclesiae Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum libri duo). For many years he pursued this controversy in a long series of writings, of which the most conspicuous is the elaborate reply to his old See also:associate and disputant, Faustus of Mileve (Contra Faustum Manichaeum, A.D. 400). It was natural that the Manichaean See also:heresy, which had so long enslaved his own mind, should have first exercised Augustine's great See also:powers as a theological thinker and controversialist. He was able from his own experience to give force to his arguments for the unity of creation and of the spiritual life, and to strengthen the mind of the Christian Church in its last struggle with that dualistic spirit which had animated and moulded in See also:succession so many formsof thought at variance with See also:Christianity. But the time was one of almost universal ecclesiastical and intellectual excitement; and so powerful a See also:mental activity as his was naturally See also:drawn forth in all directions. Following his writings against the Manichaeans came those against the See also:Donatists. The controversy was one which strongly interested him, involving as it did the whole question of the constitution of the Church and the See also:idea of catholic order, to which the circumstances of the See also:age gave special prominence. The Donatist controversy sprang out of the See also:Diocletian persecution in the beginning of the See also:century. A party in the Church of Carthage, fired with fanatic zeal on behalf of those who had courted martyrdom by resistance to the imperial mandates, resented deeply the See also:appointment of a bishop of moderate opinions, whose See also:consecration had been performed, they alleged, by a traditor, viz. a bishop who had " delivered " the See also:holy scriptures to the magistrates. They set up, in consequence, a bishop of their own, of the name of Majorinus, succeeded in 315 by See also:Donatus. The party made great pretensions to purity of discipline, and rapidly rose in popular favour, not-withstanding a decision given against them both by the bishop of Rome and by the See also:emperor Constantine. Augustine was strongly moved by the lawlessness of the party and launched forth a series of writings against them, the most important of which survive. Amongst these are " Seven Books on Baptism " (De baptismo contra Donatistas, c. A.D. 400) and a lengthy answer, in three books, to Petilian, bishop of See also:Cirta, who was the most eminent theologian amongst the Donatist divines. At a later period, about 417, Augustine wrote a See also:treatise concerning the correction of the. Donatists (De correctione Donatistarum) " for the sake of those," he says in his Retractations," who were not willing that the Donatists should be subjected to the correction of the imperial See also:laws." In these writings, while vigorously maintaining the validity of the Church as it then stood in the See also:Roman world, and the See also:necessity for moderation in the exercise of church discipline, Augustine yet gave currency, in his zeal against the Donatists, to certain See also:maxims as to the duty of the See also:civil power to See also:control See also:schism, which were of evil See also:omen, and have been productive of much disaster in the See also:history of Christianity. The third controversy in which Augustine engaged was the most important, and the most intimately associated with his distinctive greatness as a theologian. As may be supposed, owing to the conflicts through which he had passed, the bishop of Hippo was intensely interested in what may be called the anthropological aspect of the great Christian idea of redemption. He had himself been brought out of darkness into " marvellous light," only by entering into the depths of his own soul, and finding, after many struggles, that there was no power but divine grace, as revealed in the life and death of the Son of God, which could bring See also:rest to human weariness, or See also:pardon and peace for human See also:guilt. He had found human nature in his own See also:case too weak and sinful to find any good for itself. In God alone he had found good. . This deep sense of human sinfulness coloured all his See also:theology, and gave to it at once its depth—its profound and sympathetic See also:adaptation to all who feel the reality of sin—and that tinge of darkness and exaggeration wtich has as surely repelled others. When the expression " Augustinism " is used, it points especially to those opinions of the great teacher which were evoked in the Pelagian controversy, to which he devoted the most mature and powerful period of his life. His opponents in this controversy were See also:Pelagius, from whom it derives its name, and Coelestius and Julianus, pupils of the former. Nothing is certainly known as to the home of Pelagius. Augustine calls him Brito, and so do See also:Marius See also:Mercator and Orosius: See also:Jerome points to his Scottish descent, in such terms, however, as to leave it uncertain whether he was a native of See also:Scotland or of See also:Ireland. He was a man of blameless character, devoted to the See also:reformation of society, full of that confidence in the natural impulses of humanity which often accompanies philanthropic enthusiasm. About the year 400 he came, no longer a young man, to Rome, where he lived for more than a See also:decade, and soon made himself conspicuous by his activity and by his opinions. His See also:pupil Coelestius, a lawyer of unknown origin, developed the views of his master with a more outspoken See also:logic, and, while travelling with Pelagius in Africa, in the year 411, was at length arraigned before the bishop of Carthage for the following, amongst other heretical opinions:— (r) that See also:Adam's See also:sin was. purely See also:personal, and affected none but himself; (2) that each man, consequently, is born with powers as incorrupt as those of Adam, and only falls into sin under the force of temptation and evil example; (3) that See also:children who See also:die in See also:infancy, being untainted by sin, are saved without baptism. Views such as these were obviously in conflict with the whole course of Augustine's experience, as well as with his See also:interpretation of the catholic See also:doctrine of the Church. And when his See also:attention was drawn to them by the trial and See also:excommunication of Coelestius, he undertook their refutation, first of all in three books on the See also:punishment and forgiveness of sins and the baptism of infants (De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum), addressed to his friend See also:Marcellinus, in which he vindicated the necessity of baptism of infants because of original sin and the grace of God by which we are justified (Retract. ii. 23). This was in 412. In the same year he addressed a further treatise to the same Marcellinus on The Spirit and the See also:Letter (De spiritu et littera). Three years later he composed the treatises on Nature and Grace (De natura et gratia) and the relation of the human to the divine righteousness (De perfectione iustitiae hominis). The controversy was continued during many years in no fewer than fifteen treatises. Upon no subject did Augustine bestow more of his intellectual strength, and in relation to no other havehis views so deeply and permanently affected the course of Christian thought. Even those who most usually agree with his theological standpoint will hardly deny that, while he did much in these writings to vindicate divine truth and to expound the true relations of the divine and human, he also, here as else-where, was hurried into extreme expressions as to the absoluteness of divine grace and the extent of human corruption. Like his great See also:disciple in a later age—Luther—Augustine was prone to emphasize the See also:side of truth which he had most realized in his own experience, and, in contradistinction to the Pelagian exaltation of human nature, to depreciate its capabilities beyond measure. In addition to these controversial writings, which See also:mark the great epochs of Augustine's life and ecclesiastical activity after his See also:settlement as a bishop at Hippo, he was the author of other works, some of them better known and even more important. His great work, the most elaborate, and in some respects the most significant, that came from his See also:pen, is The See also:City of God (De civitate Dei). It is designed as a great apologetic treatise in vindication of Christianity and the Christian Church,— the latter conceived as rising in the See also:form of a new civic order on the crumbling ruins of the Roman See also:empire, but it is also, perhaps, the earliest contribution to the philosophy of history, as it is a repertory throughout of his cherished theological opinions. This work and his Confessions are, probably, those by which he is best known, the one as the highest expression of his thought, and the other as the best See also:monument of his living piety and Christian experience. The City of God was begun in 413, and continued to be issued in its several portions for a period of thirteen years, or till 426. The Confessions were written shortly after he became a bishop, about 397, and give a vivid See also:sketch of his early career. To the devout utterances and aspirations of a great soul they add the See also:charm of personal disclosure, and have never ceased to excite admiration in all See also:spirits of kindred piety. Something of this charm also belongs to the Retractations, that remarkable work in which Augustine, in 427, towards the end of his life, held as it were a See also:review of his literary activity, in order to improve what was erroneous and to make clear what was doubtful in it. His systematic treatise on The Trinity (De Trinitate) which extends to fifteen books and occupied him for nearly thirty years, must not be passed over. This important work, unlike most of his dogmatic writings, was not provoked by any special controversial emergency, but grew up silently during this long period in the author's mind. This has given it something more of completeness and organic arrangement than is usual with Augustine, if it has also led him into the prolonged discussion of various analogies, more curious than See also:apt in their bearing on the doctrine which he expounds. Brief and concise is the presentation of the Catholic doctrine in the compendium, which, about 421, he wrote at the See also:request of a Roman layman named See also:Laurentius (Encheiridion, sive de fide spe et caritate). In spite of its See also:title, the compendious work on Christian doctrine (De doctrina christiana), begun as early as 393, but only finished in 426, does not belong to the dogmatic writings. It is a sort of Biblical hermeneutic, in which homiletic questions are also dealt with. His catechetical principles Augustine developed in the charming See also:writing De catechizandis rudibus (c. 400). A large number of tractates are devoted to moral and theological problems (Contra mendacium, c. 420; De bono conjugali, 401, &c.). A widespread influence was exercised by the treatise De opere monachorum (c.400), in which, on the ground of Holy Scripture, See also:manual work was demanded of monks. Of less importance than the remaining works are the numerous exegetical writings, among which the commentary on the Gospel of St See also: They have, however, neither the liveliness nor the varied interest of the letters of Jerome himself. As a preacher Augustine was of great importance. We still possess almost four See also:hundred sermons which may be ascribed to him with certainty. Many others only pass under his celebrated name. The closing years of the great bishop were full of sorrow. The See also:Vandals, who had been gradually enclosing the Roman empire, appeared before the See also:gates of Hippo, and laid See also:siege to it. Augustine was ill with his last illness, and could only pray for his See also:fellow-citizens. He passed away during the siege, on the 28th of See also:August 430, at the age of seventy-five, and thus was spared the indignity of seeing the city in the hands of the enemy. The character of Augustine, both as a man and as a theologian, has been briefly indicated in the course of our sketch. None can deny the greatness of Augustine's soul—his enthusiasm, his unceasing search after truth, his affectionate disposition, his ardour, his self-devotion. And even those who may doubt the soundness of his dogmatic conclusions, cannot but acknowledge the See also:depth of his spiritual convictions, and the logical force and penetration with which he handled the most difficult questions, thus See also:weaving all the elements of his experience and of his profound scriptural knowledge into a great system of Christian thought. Of the four great Fathers of the Church he was admittedly the greatest—more profound than Ambrose, his spiritual father, more original and systematic than Jerome, his correspondent, and intellectually far more distinguished than See also:Gregory the Great, his pupil on the papal See also:throne. The theological position and influence of Augustine may be said to be unrivalled. No single name has ever exercised such power over the Christian Church, and no one mind ever made so deep an impression upon Christian thought. In him scholastics and mystics, popes and the opponents of the papal supremacy, have seen their See also:champion. He was the fulcrum on which See also:Luther rested the thoughts by which he sought to lift the past of the Church out of the rut; yet the See also:judgment of Catholics still proclaims the ideas of Augustine as the only See also:sound basis of philosophy. The best complete edition of Augustine's works is that of the Maurines, in II vols. fol. published at See also:Paris, 1679-1700, and re-printed in See also:Migne's Petrologic (Paris, 1841-1842). Of the new See also:critical edition in the Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, issued by the See also:Vienna Academy, thirteen volumes had been published in 1908, including the Confessions, the Retractations, De civitate Dei, and a number of exegetical and of dogmatic polemical works, together with a portion of the Letters. An See also:English See also:translation of nearly the whole of Augustine's writings will be found in the Select Library of the Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church (series r, See also:Buffalo, 1886, &c.). See also:Tillemont, in his Memoires pour servir d l'histoire ecclesiastique See also:des VI premiers siecles, has devoted a See also:quarto volume (vol. xiii.) to Augustine's life and writings. The most complete monographs are those on the Catholic side by Kloth (See also:Aix-la-Chapelle, 1839-1840, 3 vols.) and J. J. F. Poujoulat (7th ed., Paris, 1886, 2 vols.) and on the See also:Protestant side by Bindemann (See also:Berlin, See also:Leipzig, Greifswald, 1844-1869, 3 vols,). There are interesting sketches, from quite different points of view, by von Hertling, A ugustinus (2nd ed., See also:Mainz, 1904), and See also:Joseph McCabe, St Augustine and His Age (See also:London, 1902). See also Nourrisson, La Philosophic de St Augustin (2nd ed., Paris, 1866, 2 vols.); H. A. Naville, St Augustin, etude sur la developpement de sa pence jusqu'd l'epoque de son ordination (See also:Geneva, 1872) ; See also:Dorner, Augustinus (Berlin, 1873) ; See also:Reuter, Augustinische Studien (See also:Gotha, 1886) ; F. Scheel, Die Anschauung Augustins fiber Christi See also:Person and Werk (See also:Tubingen, 1901) ; A. Hatzfeld, Saint Augustin (6th ed., Paris, 1902) ; G. von Hertling, Augustin (Mainz, 1902); A. See also:Egger, Der heilige Augustinus (See also:Kempten, 19o4) ; J. N. Espenberger, Die Elemente der Erbsiinde nach Augustin and der Friihscholastik (Mainz, 1905) ; S. See also:Angus, The See also:Sources of the First Ten Books of Augustine's De Civitate Dei (See also:Princeton, 1906); and the more See also:modern See also:text-books of the history of See also:dogma, especially See also:Harnack. (G. 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