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matter to be dealt with may conveniently be classified as made up of three parts: (I) excreta, consisting of urine and faeces; (2) slop-water, or the See also:

DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge from sinks, basins, See also:

BATHS

baths; &c., and the See also:

WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste water of See also:

INDUSTRIAL

industrial processes; (3) See also:

SURFACE

surface; water due to rainfall. Before the use of underground conduits became general, the second and third constituents were commonly allowed to sink into the neighbouring ground, or to find their way by surface channels to a watercourse or to the See also:

sea. The first constituent was conserved in middens or pits, either together with the dust, ashes, See also:

KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as Dutch keuken, Ger. Kiuche, Dan. kokken, Fr. cuisine, are formed from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook)

kitchen waste and solid waste generally or separately, and was carried away from See also:

time to time to be applied as manure to the See also:

LAND

land. In more See also:

MODERN

modern times the pits in which excrement was collected took the See also:

FORM (Lat. forma)

form of covered tanks called cesspools, and with this modification the See also:

PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

SYSTEM

system of conservancy, with occasional removal by carts, is still to be found in many towns. Even where the See also:

plan of removing excrement by sewers has been adopted, the kitchen waste, ashes and solid refuse is still treated by collecting it in pails or bins, whose contents are removed by carts either daily or at longer intervals, the refuse frequently being burned in See also:

DESTRUCTORS

destructors (q.v.). It therefore forms no See also:

PART

part of the nearly liquid sewage which the other constituents unite to form. The first constituent is from an agricultural point of view the most valuable, and from a hygienic point of view the most dangerous, See also:

ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of sewage. Even healthy excreta decompose, if kept for a See also:

SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time after they are produced, and give rise to noxious gases; but a more serious danger proceeds from the fact that in certain cases of sickness these products are charged with specific germs of disease. Speedy removal or destruction. of excremental sewage is therefore imperative. It may be re-moved in an unmixed See also:

state, either in pails or tanks or-(with the aid of pneumatic pressure) by pipes; or it may be defaecated by mixture with dry See also:

earth or ashes; or, finally, it may be conveyed away in sewers by See also:

GRAVITATION (from Lat. gravis, heavy)

gravitation, after the addition of a relatively large See also:

VOLUME

volume of water. This last mode of disposal is termed the water-See also:

CARRIAGE

carriage system of sewerage.

It is the plan now usually adopted in towns which have a sufficient water supply, and it is probably the mode which best meets the needs, of any large community. The sewers which carry the diluted excreta serve also to take slop-water, and may or may not be used to remove the surface water due to rainfall. The water-carriage system has the disadvantage that much of the agricultural value of sewage is lost by its dilution, while the volume of foul matter to be disposed of is greatly increased. I. COLLECTION OF SEWAGE.—See also:

HOUSe drains, that is to say, those parts of the domestic system of drainage which extend from the See also:

SOIL

soil-pipes and waste-pipes to the See also:

SEWER

sewer, are generally made of glazed stoneware pipes having a See also:

DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter of 4 in., 6 in., or sometimes 9 or 12 in., according to the estimated amount of waste to be removed. In See also:

ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary domestic dwellings there is rarely any occasion to use pipes of a greater diameter than 6 in., and this only for the See also:

main drain, the branches and single lines of piping being 4 in. in dia- See also:

METER, ELECTRIC

meter. It is a See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

RULE

rule to make the pipes and other fittings, such as channels and bends, as small in diameter as possible, having due regard to efficient capacity. Such a drain is more cleanly than one too large for its purpose, in that it is more thoroughly flushed when in use, the sewage See also:

RUNNING

running at a much faster See also:

SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed through a full See also:

PIPE

pipe than through one only partially full. For this See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason a pipe having too See also:

GREAT

great a capacity for the b(tuman j See also:

WORK

work it has to do is liable to become corroded by sedi- ment deposited from slowly moving waste. The pipes are made in 2 ft. lengths and are formed with a socket at one end into which the straight end of This is wedged in position with a little gasket and the remaining space then carefully filled with neat See also:

Portland See also:

CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement (fig. I). Pipes are made also with a bituminous substance in the socket and around the spigot end, and by merely pushing the one into the other the See also:

JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint is made.

The See also:

BITUMEN

bitumen is curved to allow self-See also:

ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad juxtare, derived from juxta, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from justus, right)

adjustment to any slight See also:

settlement, so that damage to the joint is avoided (fig. 2). A composite joint may be used having the bitumen lining reinforced with the ordinary Portland cement filling (fig. 3). This type is some-what more expensive than the ordinary jointing, but it makes a powerful and effective connexion. The method of connecting two See also:

lead pipes by a " wiped See also:

SOLDER (derived through the French from Lat. soldare, to make solidus, firm)

solder joint " is shown in fig. 4. Fig. 5 shows the method of connect- See also:

CAR (Late Lat. carra)

car n /`l/`"/'sr/~ bii'turr 2t1 See also:

ing a lead pipe into the socket rarauuuaariuraaia/a. %uiouriaiaraiit of a stoneware one, a See also:

brass See also:

SLEEVE (O. Eng. slieve, slyf, a word allied to " slip," cf. Dutch sloof, apron)

sleeve piece or See also:

FERRULE

ferrule being slon¢~raKG used to give the necessary stiffness to the end of the lead pipe. This arrangement is 11u1111(11 II1111I i %:,~/ frequently used, for example, at the See also:

BASE

base of a soil-pipe at its junction with the drain. In lead pipe has a brass socket 9 t fPNVUt2 11111111 attached to it to take the See also:

PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain end of a stoneware pipe.

This form of connexion is used between a water-closet and a lead See also:

TRAP (0. Eng. treppe or traepee, properly a step, as that or which an animal places its foot and is caught, cf. Ger. Treppe flight of stairs)

trap. The joint shown in See also:

FIGS

figs. 5 and 6 is similarly made when an See also:

IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron pipe is substituted for a stoneware one, but instead of the Portland cement filling, molten lead is used and carefully caulked to form a water-tight joint. In the water-carriage system of drainage each house has its own network of drain-pipes laid under the ground, into which are taken the waste-pipes which lead from the closets, urinals, sinks, lavatory basins, and See also:

RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain-water and other gulleys within and about the house. The many branches are II II, gathered into one or more manholes, and connexion is finally made by means of a single pipe with the See also:

COMMON

common public sewer. See also:

Gas from the sewer is prevented from entering the house drains by a disconnecting trap fixed in the manhole nearest the entrance to the sewer. The fundamental See also:

MAXIMS, LEGAL

maxims of house sanitation are first, that there shall be See also:

COMPLETE

complete disconnexion between the pipes within and without the house, and second, that the drainage shall be so constructed as to allow for the See also:

FREE

free See also:

ADMISSION

admission of See also:

air in See also:

order to secure the thorough See also:

VENTILATION (Lat. ventilare, from ventus, wind)

ventilation of all parts of the system lead HIJIIItt II 111111111 1¢ad' I 1 „J 1(11111 fitted with open channels instead of closed pipes. This allows of easy inspection and testing, and provides means of See also:

ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access for the drain-rods in cases of blockage. Some-times it is desired, for reasons of See also:

ECONOMY

economy or otherwise, to avoid the use of a manhole at a See also:

CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of direction in the drain. A See also:

BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch pipe which may have a specially shaped junction for cleaning the pipes in both directions is taken up with a slope to the ground or See also:

FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor level and there finished with an air-tight See also:

COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover which may be removed to allow the introduction of drain-rods should the pipes become blocked. Junctions of one pipe with another should be made obliquely in the direction 'cement of the floor. Stoneware pipes should be laid upon a See also:

bed of See also:

concrete not less than 6 in. thick and benched up at the sides with concrete to prevent pipes pass under a See also:

BUILDING

building they should be entirely surrounded by a concrete casing at least 6 in. in thickness.

No drain should See also:

lie under a building if it is possible to avoid it, for injury is very liable to occur through some slight settlement of the building, and in a position such that the smells escaping from the damaged pipe would rise up through the floor into the building this would be an especially serious matter. The expense and annoyance of having the ground opened up for the repair of defects in the pipes beneath is another strong See also:

ARGUMENT

argument against drains being placed under a house. Where this is really necessary, however, pipes of See also:

CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast-iron are recommended instead of the ordinary stoneware pipes, as being stronger; being made in lengths of 6 and 9 ft., they have a great See also:

ADVANTAGE

advantage over the 2 ft. See also:

long stoneware tubes, for the See also:

JOINTS

joints of the latter are frequently a source of weakness. The joints, fewer in number, are made with molten lead (fig. 7), or flanged pipes are used and the joints packed with See also:

RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber and bolted (fig. 8). The principle of disconnexion adopted between the indoor and outdoor pipes should be retained between the latter and the sewer, and the domestic system should be cut off from the public drain by means of a disconnecting trap. This appliance is usually placed in a small chamber or manhole, easy of access for inspection, built See also:

close to the boundary of the premises, and as near as possible to the sewer into which the house drain discharges. Fig. 9 shows a See also:

section and plan of such a manhole built in accordance with the See also:

LONDON

London drainage by-See also:

LAWS

laws. There are five inlets from branch drains discharging by specially-shaped glazed channels into the main channel in the centre. It will be seen that in See also:

case of blockage it would be a See also:

SIMPLE

simple matter to clear any of the pipes with n/1111/iaiirr,rr :n/,, ' 9lan?xvate, 5tonamatt, ~ttlltt(IIIIUI `1111111111 (I1111(See also:

Ill( atone.rrates elonc.nrot¢ 'lllllll111(1111 See also:

IIII

IIII(I1i I++11111111 geo lsin iron iron W (II1((ll(III Illllt} 1((11101(1( FIG.

7.—Iron Spigot and Socket Joint. ~tlttttl(Uglllll ~I II iron 0. ivron -n111111ttI(~ Bolted the drain=rods. The cap to the cleanng See also:

ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm has a See also:

CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain attached by which it can be removed in case of flooding. The channels are benched up at the sides with cement, and the manhole is rendered on the inside with a cement lining. A fresh air inlet is taken out near the See also:

TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the chamber and is fitted with a See also:

MICA

mica flap inlet See also:

VALVE (Lat. valva, a leaf of a double or folding door, allied to volvere, to roll, as of a door on its hinges)

valve. The cover is of cast-iron in a cast-iron See also:

FRAME

frame shaped with grooves to afford a See also:

double See also:

seal, the grooves being filled with a See also:

composition of See also:

TALLOW (M.E. talugh, talg, cf. Du. talk, L. Ger. talg ; the connexion with O.E. taelg, dye, or Goth, tulgus, firm, is doubtful)

tallow and See also:

FINE

fine See also:

sand. Where there is a danger of a backflow from the sewer due to its becoming flooded, a hinged flap should be placed at the junction of drain and sewer to prevent sewage from entering the house drain. A See also:

ball trap designed for this purpose may be used in See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of a flap, and is more satisfactory, for the latter is liable to become corroded and work stiffly. In the ball-trap appliance the flowing back of the sewage forces a See also:

COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper ball to See also:

fit tightly against the drain outlet, the ball dropping out of the way of the flow directly the pressure is relaxed. The water-carriage system of drainage is undoubtedly the most nearly perfect yet devised.

End of Article: SEWERAGE

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