EXPENDITURE (omitting fractions) See also:

• YEAR

The former See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

The amended rates were 3.3% on rural lands and 5% on urban See also:

• BUILDING

The business tax was instituted in 1896, after the war with China, and the rates have remained unchanged. For the purposes of the tax all kinds of business are divided into nine classes, Business and the tax is levied on the amounts of sales (wholesale and and See also:

• RETAIL

compelled a revision of the statutory tariff. Under this system the ratio of the duties to the value of the dutiable goods was about 15.65 %. The customs yield a revenue of about 42,000,000 yen. In addition to the above there are eleven taxes, some in existence Other before the war of 1904–5, and some created for the purpose Taxes. of carrying on the war or to meet the expenses of a post bellum programme. Taxes in existence before 1904–1905: Yield Name. (millions of yen). Tax on soy 4 Tax on See also:

• SUGAR

There are 48 of these facture' institutions, giving employment to io8,0oo male operatives and 23,000 See also:

• FEMALE

Both programmes had the same bases—expansion of armaments and development of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

To See also:

• FINANCE

The result of this trans-action was that bonds having a total See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

yen, of which 135,000,000 yen were added to the national debt, the remainder being defrayed with accumulations of surplus revenue, with a See also:

• PART

During the first two periods (1867 to 1897) of the Meiji era, owing to the processes of See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

Under this system the total expenditures of the various corporations in the last year of each quinquennial period commencing from the fiscal year 1889-1890 were as follow: Total Expenditure Year. (millions of yen). 1889-1890 22 1893–1894 52 1898–1899 97 1903–1904 2 158 1907–1908 167 " In this is included a sum of 110,000,000 yen distributed in the form of loan-bonds among the officers and men of the army and navy by way of See also:

• REWARD

Lands 12,301,000,000 Buildings 2,331,000,000 See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

See also:

• ADMISSION

But it is to be observed that all this refinement was limited virtually to the noble families residing in Kioto, and that the first See also:

• OBJECT

He employed a number of priests to make copies of Chinese and Japanese books; he patronized men of learning and he endowed schools. It does not appear to have occurred to him, however, that the spread of knowledge was hampered by a restriction which, emanating originally from the Imperial court in Kioto, forbade any one outside the ranks of the Buddhist priesthood to become a public teacher. To his fifth successor Tsunayoshi (168o-1709) was reserved the See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

There were also several private schools where the curriculum consisted chiefly of moral See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

The Tokugawa government established in Yedo an institution called Bansho-shirabe-dokoro (place for studying foreign books), where Occidental languages were learned and Occidental works translated. Simultaneously a school for acquiring foreign medical See also:

• ART

This amounted Japan. to a See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

The tuition See also:

• FEE

The graduate of a common middle school can claim admittance, without examination, to a high school, where he spends three years preparing to pass to a university, or four years studying a special subject, as law, See also:

• ENGINEERING

Its colleges number six: law, medicine, engineering, literature, science and agriculture. It has a university See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

Apart from the universities, the public educational institutions in Japan involve an annual expenditure of 31 millions See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

Its scripture—as the Kojiki must be considered—resembles the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Couched in See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

But in the middle of the 17th century a strong revival of the indigenous faith was effected by the efforts of a See also:

• GROUP

At his command many new temples were built; the country was divided into dioceses under Buddhist prelates; priests were encouraged to teach the arts of road-making and See also:

• BRIDGE

But the Tendai doctrines, introduced by Dengyo, Iikaku and other See also:

• FELLOW

Its devotees make no use of charms or spells, which are common among the followers of other sects. Anterior by a few years to that introduction of the Shinshu was the Zen sect, which has three main divisions, the Rinzai (1168), the See also:

• SOTO, FERDINANDO [FERNANDO, Or HERNANDO] DE (1496?—1542)

Sectarian controversies and squabbles were nearly as prominent among Japanese Buddhists as they were among European Christians, but to the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

They were assisted by 32 Japanese priests, 52 Japanese nuns, 280 male catechists and 265 female catechists and nurses. Three seminaries for native priests existed, together with 58 schools and See also:

• ORPHAN

The Methodists represent 6 American societies and i See also:

• CANADIAN

Foreigners were allowed to travel freely in the interior of the country provided that they submitted their baggage for official inspection and made no purchases of weapons of war, but all imported goods were bought in the first place by official appraisers who subsequently sold them to the people at arbitrarily fixed prices. Greater importance attached to the trade with China under the Ashikaga shoguns (14th, 15th and 16th centuries), who were in constant need of funds to defray the cost of inter-minable military operations caused by See also:

• CIVIL

They also brought large profits to the Ouchi family, for, in the absence of competition, the pro-ducts and manufactures of each country found ready See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

An army from See also:

• SEOUL (Han-yang)

Their See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

Xavier, with two Portuguese companions and Anjiro, were excellently received by the feudal chiefs of Satsuma and obtained permission to preach their doctrine in any part of the fief. This permit is not to be construed as an evidence of official sympathy with the foreign creed. Commercial considerations alone were in question. A Japanese feudal chief in that era had sedulously to See also:

• FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847– )
• FOSTER, JOHN (177o-1843)
• FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899)
• FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904)
• FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-r9o7)
• FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864)

They represented to the Satsuma chief that peace and good order were inconsistent with such a display of militant propagandism, and he, already profoundly chagrined by his commercial disappointment, issued in 1550 an See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

But he had now learned a See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

He repaired to the Bungo chieftain's court, escorted by nearly the whole of the Portuguese crew, gorgeously bedizened, carrying their arms and with See also:

• BANNERS, FEAST OF (Jap. Nobori-no-Sekku)

It is open to grave doubt whether any foreigner has ever attained the requisite proficiency. Leaving Anjiro in Kagoshima to care for the converts made there, Xavier pushed on to Hirado, where he baptized a hundred Japanese in a few days. Now we have it on the authority of Xavier himself that in this Hirado See also:

• CAMPAIGN

These newcomers landed at Kago-Period of shima and found that, in spite of the official veto Christian against the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

Thirty years later, this orderly and reverential demeanour was exchanged for riotous excesses such as had already made the Portuguese sailor a by-word in China. But in the early days of intercourse with Japan the crews of the merchant vessels seem to have preached Christianity by their exemplary conduct. Just as Xavier had been induced to visit Bungo by the anxiety of a ship-See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

But while they hesitated, a Portuguese vessel arrived at Hirado, and the feudal chief declared publicly that no need existed to conciliate the missionaries, since trade went on without them. When this became known in Bungo, Torres hastened to Hirado, was received with extraordinary honours by the crew of the vessel, and at his instance she left the port, her master declaring that " he could not remain in a country where they maltreated those who professed the same religion as himself." Hirado remained a closed port for some years, but ultimately the advent of three merchantmen, which intimated their determination not to put in unless the See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

Two years later Otomo himself came over to the Christian faith. He rendered inestimable aid, not merely within his own fief, but also by the influence he exercised on others. His intervention, supported by recourse to arms, obtained for the Jesuits a footing on the island of Amakusa, where one of the feudatories gave his vassals the choice of con-version or See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

He ordered the Jesuits to quit his dominions, required the converts to return to their ancestral faith, and caused " the holy places to be destroyed and the crosses to be thrown down." Nearly one-half of the converts apostatized under this pressure, but others had recourse to a See also:

• DEVICE

They had suffered for interfering in politics, but the fierce See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

Nevertheless the Jesuit obtained an opportunity to expound his doctrines to a party of bonzes at the monastery. Subsequently, through the good offices of a priest, described as " one of the most respected men in the city," and with the assistance of the Bungo feudatory's letter, Vilela enjoyed the rare honour of being received by the shogun in Kioto, who treated him with all consideration and assigned a house for his residence. It may be imagined that, owing such a debt of gratitude to Buddhist priests, Vilela would have behaved towards them and their creed with courtesy. But the Jesuit fathers were proof against all influences calculated to impair their stern sense of duty. Speaking through the mouth of a Japanese convert, Vilela attacked the bonzes in unmeasured terms and denounced their faith. Soon the bonzes, on their side, were seeking the destruction of these uncompromising assailants with insistence inferior only to that which the Jesuits themselves would have shown in similar circumstances. Against these perils Vilela was protected by the goodwill of the shogun, who had already issued a See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

Incidentally this event furnishes an index to the character of the Japanese samurai: he accepted the consequences of defeat as frankly as he dared it. In the same year (1564) the feudatory of Sawa, a brother of Takayama, became a Christian and imposed the faith on all his vassals, just as Sumitada and other feudal chiefs had done in Kiushiu. But the Kioto record differs from that of Kitishiu in one important respect—the former is free from any intrusion of commercial motives. Kioto was at that time the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

Many of the great monasteries had become armed camps, their inmates skilled equally in field-attacks and in the See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

For the Jesuits now the absorbing question was, what attitude Hideyoshi would assume towards their propagandism. His power was virtually limitless. With a word he could have overthrown the whole edifice created by them at the cost of so much splendid effort and noble devotion. They were very quickly reassured. In this See also:

• MATTER

He carried that difficult campaign to completion by the middle of 1587, and throughout its course he maintained a uniformly friendly demeanour towards the Jesuits. But suddenly, when on the return journey he reached Hakata in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

During that space no harm or hurt will be done to them. But at the expiration of that term, we order that if any of them be found in our states, they should be seized and punished as the greatest criminals. As for the Portuguese merchants, we permit them to enter our ports, there to continue their accustomed trade, and to remain in our states provided our affairs need this. But we forbid them to bring any foreign priests into the country, under the See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

Brought into direct contact with these evidences of the growth of a new power, temporal as well as spiritual, Hideyoshi may well have reached the conclusion that a choice had to be finally made between his own supremacy and that of the alien creed, if not between the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

He did indeed make one very large concession. For on being assured that Portuguese traders could not frequent Japan unless they found Christian priests there to minister to them, he consented to sanction the presence of a limited number of Jesuits. The statistics of 1595 show how Christianity fared under even this partial tolerance, for there were then 137 Jesuits in Japan with 300,000 converts, among whom were 17 feudal chiefs, to say nothing of many men of lesser though still considerable See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

Thus they obtained permission to visit Kioto, Osaka and Fushimi, but with the explicit proviso that they must not preach. Very soon they had built a church in Kioto, consecrated it with the. utmost pomp, and were preaching sermons and chaunting litanies there in flagrant See also:

• DEFIANCE

Hideyoshi further issued a special See also:

• INJUNCTION (from Lat. injungere, to fasten, or attach to, to lay a burden or charge on, to enjoin)

But they pronounced him an execrable See also:

• TYRANT (Gr. r6pavvos, master, ruler)

Crucifixion, according to the Japanese method, consisted in tying to a cross and piercing the heart with two See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

. The same Prince (who is about to visit the Kwanto) invites me to accompany him to make choice of a house, and to visit the harbour which he promises to open to us; his desires in this respect are keener than I can See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

He issued (16or) two official See also:

• PATENTS

It was a story of the inquisition and of the stake; of unlimited aggression in the name of the cross; of the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

The Englishman replied that such a proceeding would be regarded in Europe as an act of hostility, especially on the part of the Spaniards or Portuguese, whose aggressions were notorious. He added, in reply to further questions, that "the Roman priest-hood had been expelled from many parts of Germany, from See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

The fateful edict ordering that all foreign priests should be collected in Nagasaki preparatory to removal from Japan, that all churches should be demolished, and that the suppression converts should be compelled to abjure Christianity, of was issued on the 27th of See also:

• JANUARY

During these events the death of Iyeyasu took place (See also:

• JUNE

This happened under the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

His answer was that, if released, he would stay in Japan and preach there. He laid his head on the See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

Finally, in 1622, Zuniga and See also:

• FLORES

By the latter were invented the punishment of throwing converts into the soifataras at Unzen and the torture of the See also:

• FOSSE (or Foss) WAY

Ignoring the orders of the governors of Macao and Manila and even of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

Still the people would probably have suffered in silence had they not been taxed beyond all endurance to supply funds for an extravagant chief who employed See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

In fact the three See also:

• OBJECTS

The Dutch possessed precisely the qualifications suited to the situation then existing in Japan: they had commercial potentialities without any religious associations. Fully appreciating that fact, the shrewd feudatory of Hirado laid himself out to entice the Dutchmen to his fief, and he succeeded. Shortly afterwards, an incident occurred which clearly betrayed the strength of the Tokugawa chief's desire to See A History of Christianity in Japan (1910), by See also:

• OTIS, HARRISON GRAY (1765-1848)
• OTIS, JAMES (1725–1783)

In x61 i a Dutch merchantman (the " Brach ") reached Hirado with a cargo of See also:

• PEPPER
• PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843–1898)

2. With regard to the cargoes of ships, requisition will be made by list according to the requirements of the shogunate. 3. English ships are free to visit any port in Japan. If disabled by storms they may put into any harbour. 4. Ground In Yedo in the place which they may desire shall be given to the English, and they may erect houses and reside and trade there. They shall be at liberty to return to their country whenever they wish to do so, and to dispose as they like of the houses they have erected. 5. If an Englishman See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

7. If one of the English should-commit an offence, he should be sentenced by the English General according to the gravity of his offence. (Translated by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Still the See also:

• CLOSURE (Fr. clooture)

They numbered 287 and the property ' The Imperial cities were Yedo, Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki. To this last the English were subsequently admitted. They were also invited to Kagoshima by the Shimazu chieftain, and, had not their experience at Hirado proved so deterrent, they might have established a factory at Kagoshima. they carried with them aggregated 6,607,5oo florins. But if the Portuguese derived any gratification from this sweeping out of their much-abused rivals, the feeling was destined to be short-lived. Already they were subjected to humiliating restrictions. " From 1623 the galleons and their cargoes were liable to be burnt and their crews executed if any foreign priest was found on board of them. An official of the Japanese government was stationed in Macao for the purpose of inspecting all intending passengers, and of preventing any one that looked at all suspicious from proceeding to japan. A complete list and personal description of every one on board was drawn up by this officer, a copy of it was handed to the captain and by him it had to be delivered to the authorities who met him at Nagasaki before he was allowed to See also:

• ANCHOR (from the Greek ayrcvpa, which Vossius considers is from 6yi17 , a crook or hook)

It was in the following year (1636) that the artificial islet of Deshima was constructed for their special reception, or rather imprisonment. It lay in front of the former Portuguese factory, with which it was connected by a bridge, and henceforth the Portuguese were to be allowed to cross this bridge only twice a year—at their arrival and at their departure. Furthermore, all their cargoes had to be sold at a fixed price during their fifty days' stay to a ring of licensed merchants from the imperial towns." 1 The See also:

• IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay upon)

Four aged men, the most respected citizens of Macao, were despatched (1640) to Nagasaki as ambassadors in a ship carrying no cargo but only rich presents. They See also:

• BORE

Let them think no more of us, just as if we were no longer in the world." Finally the thirteen were taken to the martyrs' mount where, set up above the heads of the victims, a tablet recounted the story of the embassy and the reasons for the execution, and concluded with the words: " So long as the sun warms the earth, let no Christian be so bold as to come to japan, and let all know that if King Philip himself, or even the very God of the Christians, or the great Shaka contravene this prohibition, they shall pay for it with their heads." Had the ministers of the shogun in Yedo desired to make clear to future ages that to Christianity alone was due the expulsion of Spaniards and Portuguese from Japan and her adoption of the policy of seclusion they could not have placed on record more conclusive testimony. Macao received the news with rejoicing in that its " earthly ambassadors had been made ambassadors of heaven," but it did not abandon all hope of over-coming Japan's obduracy. When Portugal recovered her independence in 1640, the people of Macao requested Lisbon to send an ambassador to Japan, and on the 16th of July 1647 Don Gonzalo de Siqueira arrived in Nagasaki with two vessels. He carried a letter from King See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

The Anglo-Dutch " fleet of defence " made that port its basis of operations against the Spaniards and the Portuguese. It brought its prizes into Hirado, the profits to be equally divided between the fleet and the factories, Dutch and English, which arrangement involved a sum of a hundred thousand pounds in 1622. But after the death of Iyeyasu there grew up at the Tokugawa court a party which advocated the expulsion of all foreigners on the ground that, though some professed a different form of Christianity from that of the Castilians and Portuguese, it was nevertheless one and the same creed. This policy was not definitely adopted, but it made itself See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

The factory happened to be then presided over by Caron, a man of extraordinary penetration. Without a moment's hesitation he set 400 men to pull down the warehouses, thus depriving the Japanese of all pretext for recourse to violence. He was compelled, however, to promise that there should be no observance of the See also:

• SABBATH

See also:

• SIEBOLD, CARL THEODOR ERNST VON (1804–1885)
• SIEBOLD, PHILIPP FRANZ VON (1796-1866)

At that time this Nagasaki over-sea trade was considerable. From 7 to 10 Dutch ships used to enter the port annually, carrying cargo valued at some 8o,000 lb of silver, the chief staples of import being silk and piece-goods, and the government levying 5% by way of customs dues. But this did not represent the whole of the charges imposed. A See also:

• RENT

In 1541 we find the Japanese celebrated, or notorious, throughout the whole of the Far East for exploits abroad ; we find them known as the ` kings of the sea ' ; we find fhemj welcoming foreigners with cordiality and opposing no obstacles to foreign commerce or even to the propagandism of foreign creeds; we find them so See also:

• QUICK

In See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

A panic ensued among ppeorry odors the people—the same people who, in the days of Hideyoshi or Iyeyasu, would have gone out to encounter these ships with assured confidence of victory. The contrast did not stop there. The shogun, whose ancestors had administered the country's affairs with absolutely autocratic authority, now summoned a See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

But Russian in the concluding days of this epoch two influences influence. began to disturb her self-sufficiency. One was the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

The Japanese settlements in Sakhalin and Etorofu were raided and burned, other places were menaced and several Japanese vessels were destroyed. The lesson sank deep into the minds of the Yedo officials. They withdrew their veto against the study of foreign books, and they arrived in part at the reluctant conclusion that to offer armed opposition to the coming of foreign ships was a task somewhat beyond Japan's capacity. Japan ceased, however, to attract European attention amid the absorbing interest of the See also:

• NAPOLEONIC

He did not unduly See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

Arriving in August 1856, he concluded, in June of the following year, a treaty securing to American citizens the privilege of permanent residence at Shimoda and Hakodate, the opening of Nagasaki, the right of consular jurisdiction and certain See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

The Yedo authorities had power to solve all problems of foreign intercourse without reference to See also:

• KIEL

The nation ranged itself into three parties. One comprised the See also:

• ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF

Thus when the Yedo government, cognisant that serious dangers menaced the Yokohama settlement, took precautions to guard it, the foreign ministers convinced themselves that a deliberate piece of chicanery was being practised at their expense; that statecraft rather than truth had dictated the representations made to them by the Japanese authorities; and that the alarm of the latter was simulated for the purpose of finding a pretext to curtail the liberty enjoyed by foreigners. Therefore a suggestion that the inmates of the legations should show themselves as little as possible in the streets of the capital, where at any moment a desperado might cut them down, was treated almost as an insult. Then the Japanese authorities saw no recourse except to attach an armed escort to the person of every foreigner when he moved about the city. But even this precaution, which certainly was not adopted out of mere caprice or with any sinister design, excited fresh suspicions. The British representative, in See also:

• REPORTING

This outrage was not in-spired by the " See also:

• BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

The treaties, however, continued during several years to lack imperial ratification, and, as time went by, that defect obtruded itself more and more upon the attention of their foreign signatories. The year 1865 saw British interests entrusted to the charge of See also:

• SIR

Perry had come with his war-ships to the portals of Yedo, and now a foreign fleet, twice as strong as Perry's, had anchored at the See also:

• VESTIBULE (from Lat. vestibulum)

Yet no sooner did he attain that distinction in 1866 than he remodelled the army on French lines, engaged English officers to organize a navy, sent his brother to the See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

They recognized its necessity and even its expediency, for if, on the one hand, it infringed their country's sovereign rights, on the other, it prevented complications which must have ensued had they been entrusted with jurisdiction which they were not prepared to discharge satisfactorily. But the consular courts were not free from defects. A few of the powers organized competent tribunals presided over by judicial experts, but a majority of the treaty states, not having sufficiently large interests at stake, were content to delegate consular duties to merchants, not only deficient in legal training, but also themselves engaged in the very commercial transactions upon which they might at any moment be required to adjudicate in a magisterial capacity. In any circumstances the dual functions of consul and See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

She had asked for revision in 187r, sending to Europe and America an important embassy to raise the question. But at that time the conditions originally calling for consular jurisdiction had not undergone any change such as would have justified its abolition, and the Japanese government, though very anxious to recover tariff autonomy as well as judicial, shrank from separating the two questions, lest by prematurely solving one the solution of the other might be unduly deferred. Thus the embassy failed, and though the problem attracted great academical interest from the first, it did not re-enter the field of practical politics until 1883. The negotiations were long protracted. Never previously had an Oriental state received at the hands of the Occident recognition such as that now demanded by Japan, and the West naturally felt deep reluctance to try a wholly novel experiment. The United States had set a generous example by concluding a new treaty (1878) on the lines desired by Japan. But its operation was conditional on a similar act of compliance by the other treaty powers. Ill-informed European publicists ridiculed the Washington statesmen's attitude on this occasion, claiming that what had been given with one hand was taken back with the other. The truth is that the conditional provision was inserted at the request of Japan herself, who appreciated her own unpreparedness for the concession. From 1883, however, she was ready to accept full responsibility, and she therefore asked that all foreigners within her borders should thenceforth be subject to her laws and judiciable by her law-courts, supplementing her application by promising that its favourable reception should be followed by the complete opening of the country and the removal of all restrictions hitherto imposed on foreign trade, travel and residence in her realm. " From the first it had been the habit of Occidental peoples to upbraid Japan on account of the barriers opposed by her to full and free foreign intercourse, and she was now able to claim that these barriers were no longer maintained by her desire, but that they existed because of a system which theoretically proclaimed her unfitness for free association with Western nations, and practically made it impossible for her to throw open her territories completely for. the See also:

• INGRESS (Lat. ingresses, going in)

Foreigners residing in Japan naturally clung to consular jurisdiction as a privilege of inestimable value. They saw, indeed, that such a system could not be permanently imposed on a country where the conditions justifying it had nominally disappeared. But they saw, also, that the legal and judicial reforms effected by Japan had been crowded into an extraordinarily brief period, and that, as tyros experimenting with alien systems, the Japanese might be betrayed into many errors. The negotiations lasted for eleven years. They were begun in 1883 and a solution was not reached until 1894. Finally European Recognition governments conceded the justice of Japan's case, by the and it was agreed that from July 1899 Japanese Powers. tribunals should assume jurisdiction over every person, of whatever nationality, within the confines of Japan, and the whole country should be thrown open to foreigners, all limitations upon trade, travel and residence being removed. Great Britain took the lead in thus releasing Japan from the fetters of the old system. The initiative came from her with special grace, for the system and all its irksome consequences had been originally imposed on Japan by a combination of powers with Great Britain in the See also:

• VAN

It should be stated, however, that neither reluctance to make the necessary concessions nor want of sympathy with Japan caused the delay. The explanation is, first, that each set of negotiators sought to improve either the terms or the terminology of the treaties already concluded, and, secondly, that the tariff arrangements for the different countries required elaborate discussion. Until the last of the revised treaties was ratified, voices of protest against revision continued to be vehemently raised by a Reception large section of the foreign community in the See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

The premier and other ministers of state issued instructions to the effect that the responsibility now devolved on the government, and the duty on the people, of enabling foreigners to reside confidently and contentedly in every part of the country. Even the chief Buddhist prelates addressed to the priests and parishioners in their dioceses injunctions pointing out that, freedom of conscience being now guaranteed by the constitution, men professing alien creeds must be treated as courteously as the followers of Buddhism, and must enjoy the same rights and privileges. Thus the great change was effected in circumstances of happy augury. Its results were successful on the whole. Foreigners residing in Japan now enjoy immunity of See also:

• DOMICILE (Lat. domicilium, from domus, home)

This contrast was accentuated two years later (1907) when France and Russia concluded ententes with Japan, recognizing the in-dependence and integrity of the Chinese Empire, as well as the principle of equal opportunity for all nations in that country, and engaging to support each other for assuring peace and security there. Japan thus became a world power in the most unequivocal sense. Japan's Foreign Wars and Complications.—The earliest foreign war conducted by Japan is said to have taken place at the war with beginning of the 3rd century, when the empress See also:

• JINGO

On the 24th of May 1592 the See also:

• WAVE

The forecast was that the Koreans would offer their chief resistance, first, at the capital, Seoul; next at Phyong-yang, and finally at the Yalu, as the approaches to all these places offered positions capable of being utilized to great advantage for defensive purposes. On the 24th of May 1592 the first army corps, under the command of Konishi Yukinaga, crossed unmolested to the peninsula; next day the castle of Fusan was carried Landing in by storm, which same fate befell, on the 27th, Korea and another and stronger fortress lying 3 miles inland Advance and garrisoned by 20,000 picked soldiers. The ofthe invaders were irresistible. From the landing-place ~nvaders. at Fusan to the See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

Once allow the Japanese swordsman to come to close quarters and he carried all before him. To keep him at a distance, then, was the great desideratum, and the Chinese compassed this in maritime warfare by completely covering their boats with See also:

• ROOFS

The last and most important took place shortly after the Japanese troops had seized Phyong-yang. It JAPAN 243 ear-See also:

• MOUND

200 See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

As early as 162o, some vassals of the feudal chief of Matsumae visited the place and passed a winter there. It was then supposed to be a peninsula forming part of the Asiatic mainland, but in 1806 'a daring Japanese traveller, by name Mamiya Rinzo, made his way to Manchuria, voyaged up and down the See also:

• AMUR
• AMUR (known also as the Sakhalin-ula)

The Japanese commander at Phyongyang never received any accession of strength. His force suffered constant diminution from casualties, and the question of See also:

• COMMISSARIAT

The Japanese See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

St See also:

• PETERSBURG

But the Chinese authorities showed such resolute indifference to Japan's representations that the latter finally took the law into her own hands, and sent a small force to punish the Formosan murderers, who, of course, were found quite unable to offer any serious resistance. The Chinese government, now recognizing the fact that its territories had been invaded, lodged a protest which, but for the intervention of the British minister in Peking, might have involved the two empires in war. The final terms of arrangement were that, in consideration of Japan withdrawing her troops from Formosa, China should indemnify her to the extent of the expenses of the expedition. In sending this expedition to Formosa the government sought to placate the Satsuma samurai, who were beginning to show much opposition to certain features of the administrative reforms just inaugurated, and who claimed special interest in the affairs of the Riukiu islands. Had Japan needed any See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

But it was also true that Riukiu had been subdued by Satsuma without China stretching out a hand to help her; that for two centuries the islands had been included in the Satsuma fief, and that China, in the sequel to the Formosan affair, had made a practical See also:

• ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the forms oknow, aknow and acknow; acknowledge is formed on analogy of " knowledge ")

But Japan did not want to fight. In this matter she showed herself an apt pupil of Occidental methods such as had been practised against herself in former years. She assembled an imposing force of war-ships and transports, but instead of proceeding to extremities, she employed the squadron —which was by no means so strong as it seemed—to intimidate Korea into See also:

• SIGNING

But they could never persuade themselves to modify the indirect methods sanctioned by tradition. Instead of boldly declaring Korea a dependency of China, they sought to keep up the romance of ultimate dependency and intermediate sovereignty. Thus in 1876 Korea was suffered to conclude with Japan a treaty of which the first article declared her " an independent state enjoying the same rights as Japan, " and subsequently to make with the United States (1882), Great Britain (1883) and other powers, treaties in which her independence was constructively admitted. China, however, did not intend that Korea should exercise the independence thus conventionally recognized. A Chinese resident was placed in Seoul, and a system of steady though covert interference in Korea's affairs was inaugurated. The chief sufferer from these anomalous conditions was Japan. In all her dealings with Korea, in all complications that arose out of her comparatively large trade with the peninsula, in all questions connected with her numerous settlers there, she found herself negotiating with a dependency of China, and with officials who took their orders from the Chinese representative. China had long entertained a rooted apprehension of Japanese aggression in Korea—an apprehension not unwarranted by history—and that distrust tinged all the influence exerted by her agents there. On many occasions Japan was made sensible of the discrimination thus exercised against her. Little by little the consciousness roused her indignation, and although no single instance constituted a ground for strong international protest, the Japanese people gradually acquired a sense of being perpetually baffled, thwarted and humiliated by China's interference in Korean affairs. For thirty years China had treated Japan as a contemptible deserter from the Oriental standard, and had regarded her progressive efforts with openly disdainful aversion; while Japan, on her side, had chafed more and more to furnish some striking evidence of the wisdom of her preference for Western civilization. Even more serious were the consequences of Chinese interference from the point of view of Korean administration.

The rulers of the country lost all sense of national responsibility, and gave unrestrained sway to selfish ambition. The functions of the judiciary and of the executive alike came to be discharged by See also:

• BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. briberie, begging or vagrancy, bribe, Mid. Lat. briba, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars; the Eng. " bribe " has passed through the meanings of alms, blackmail and extortion, to gifts received or given in order to influ

On two occasions (1882 and 1884) when China's armed intervention was employed in the interests of the Min to suppress movements of reform, the partisans of the victors, regarding Japan as the fountain of progressive tendencies, destroyed her legation in Seoul and compelled its inmates to See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

But there was not the remotest See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

They continued to apply the disputed appellation to Korea, and they further asserted their See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

But the rebellion having died of inanition before the landing of the troops, their services were not required. Nevertheless China kept them in Korea, her declared reason for doing so being the presence of a Japanese military force. Throughout the subsequent negotiations the Chinese forces lay in an entrenched camp at Asan, while the Japanese occupied Seoul. An attempt on China's part to send reinforcements could be construed only as an unequivocal declaration of resolve to oppose Japan's proceedings by force of arms. Nevertheless China not only despatched troops by sea to strengthen the camp at Asan, but also sent an army overland across Korea's northern frontier. At this stage an act of war occurred. Three Chinese men-of-war, convoying a transport with 1200 men encountered and fired on three Japanese cruisers. One of the Chinese ships was taken; another was so shattered that she had to be beached and abandoned; the third escaped in a dilapidated condition; and the transport, refusing to surrender, was sunk. This happened on the 25th of July 1894, and an open declaration of war was made by each empire six days later. From the moment when Japan applied herself to break away from Oriental traditions, and to remove from her limbs the Remote fetters of Eastern conservatism, it was inevitable origin that a widening gulf should gradually grow between of the herself and China. The war of 1894 was really conflict. a contest between Japanese progress and Chinese stagnation. To secure Korean immunity from foreign—especially Russian—aggression was of capital importance to both empires.

Japan believed that such security could be attained by introducing into Korea the civilization which had contributed so signally to the development of her own strength and resources. China thought that she could guarantee it without any departure from old-fashioned methods, and by the same process of capricious protection which had failed so signally in the cases of Annam, Tongking, Burma and Siam. The issue really at stake was whether Japan should be suffered to act as the Eastern propagandist of Western progress, or whether her efforts in that cause should be held in check by Chinese conservatism. The war itself was a succession of triumphs for Japan. Four days after the first naval encounter she sent from Seoul a See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

Fourteen Chinese war-ships and six See also:

• TORPEDO

This ended the war. It had lasted seven and a half months, during which time Japan put into the field five columns, aggregating about 120,000 of all arms. One of these columns marched northward from Seoul, won the battle of Phyong-yang, advanced to the Yalu, forced its way into Manchuria, and moved towards See also:

• MUKDEN (Chinese Sheengking)

It declared the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

It was impossible for any European power, or for the United States, to organize sufficiently prompt measures of relief. Thus the eyes of the world turned to Japan, whose proximity to the scene of disturbance rendered intervention comparatively easy for her. But Japan hesitated. Knowing now with what suspicion and distrust the development of her resources and the growth of her military strength were regarded by some European peoples, and aware that she had been admitted to the See also:

• COMITY (from the Lat. comitas, courtesy, from antis, friendly, courteous)

Japan along its western shore, Korea along its southern and eastern, and Russia along the eastern coast of its maritime province, are washed by the Sea of Japan. The communications between the sea and the Pacific Ocean are practically two only. One is on the north-east, namely, Tsugaru Strait; the other is on the south, namely, the channel between the extremity of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese island of the nine provinces. Tsugaru Strait is entirely under Japan's control. It is between her main island and her island of Yezo, and in case of need she can close it with mines. The channel between the southern extremity of Korea and Japan has a width of 102 M. and would therefore be a fine open sea-way were it free from islands. But almost mid-way in this channel lie the twin islands of Tsushima, and the space of 56 m. that separates them from Japan is narrowed by another island, See also:

• IKI

But with Russia the case was different. See also:

• VLADIVOSTOK

To push southward from this new port became an immediate object to Russia. There lay an obstacle in the way, however; the long See also:

• STRIP

Immediately after reaching the mouth of the Amur the same See also:

• INSTINCT

But she was a tributary of China, and China had begun to show some tenacity in protecting the integrity of her buffer states. Besides, Japan was understood to have pretensions with regard to Korea. On the whole, therefore, the problem of carrying to full fruition the work of Muravief and his lieutenants demanded strength greater than Russia could exercise without some line of communications supplementing the Amur waterway and the long ocean route. Therefore she set about the construction of a railway across Asia. The Amur being the boundary of Russia's east Asian territory, this railway had to be carried along its northern bank wheremany engineering and economic obstacles presented themselves. Besides, the river, from an early stage in its course, makes a huge semicircular sweep northward, and a railway following its bank to Vladivostok must make the same detour. If, on the contrary, the. road could be carried over the See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

For the proposed arrangement would place the littoral of Manchuria in Japan's direct occupation and the littoral of Korea in her constructive control, since not only had she fought to See also:

• RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse, Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa,reexcutere, to shake off again, re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake)

Unable to do either the one or the other, she quietly stepped out of Manchuria, and proceeded to double her army and See also:

• TREBLE (a doublet of " triple," three-fold, from Lat. triplus, triple; cf. " double " from duplus)

Imagining that the Chinese could be persuaded or intimidated to any concession, she proposed a convention virtually recognizing her title to Manchuria. Japan watched all these things with profound anxiety. If there were any reality in the dangers which Russia, Germany and France had declared to be incidental to Japanese occupation of a part of Manchuria, the same dangers must be doubly incidental to Russian occupation of the whole of Manchuria—the security of the Chinese capital would be threatened, and an obstacle would be created to the permanent peace of the East. The independence of Korea was an object of supreme solicitude to Japan. Historically she held towards the little state a relation closely resembling that of suzerain, and though of her ancient conquests nothing remained except a settlement at Fusan on the southern coast, her national sentiment would have been deeply wounded by any foreign aggression in the peninsula. It was to establish Korean independence that she waged war with China in 1894; and her See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

Moreover, there would be an even stronger motive impelling Russia towards Korea. Neither the Usuri region nor the Manchurian littoral possesses so much as one port qualified to satisfy her perennial longing for free access to the ocean in a temperate See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

Russia, instead of trusting time to consolidate her tenure of Manchuria, had made the See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

They did not ask for anything that could hurt her See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

Whilst she studiously deferred her answers to Japan's proposals and protracted the negotiations to an extent which was actually contumelious, she hastened to send eastward a big fleet of war-ships and a new army of soldiers. It was impossible for the dullest politician to mistake her purpose. She intended to yield nothing, but to prepare such a parade of force that her obduracy would command submission. The only alternatives for Japan were war or total and permanent effacement in Asia. She chose war, and in fighting it she fought the battle of free and equal opportunities for all without undue encroachment upon the sovereign rights or territorial integrity of China or Korea, against a military dictatorship, a programme of ruthless territorial aggrandizement and a policy of selfish restrictions. The details of the great struggle that ensued are given else- where (see Russo-JAPANESE WAR). After the battle of Mukden the belligerents found themselves in a position which must either prelude another stupendous effort on both sides or be utilized for the purpose of peace negotiations. At this point the president of the United States of America intervened in the interests of humanity, and on the 9th of June 1905 instructed the United States' representative in Tokyo to urge that the Japanese government should open direct negotiations with Russia, an exactly corresponding note being simultaneously sent to the Russian government through the United States' representative in St Petersburg. Japan's reply was made on the loth of June. It intimated See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

(afterwards Count) de See also:

• WITTE, SERGE JULIEVICH, COUNT (1849— )

To recover that portion of the island seemed, therefore, a legitimate ambition. Japan did not contemplate any larger demand, nor did she seriously insist on an indemnity. Therefore the negotiations were never in real danger of failure. The treaty of Portsmouth recog- nized Japan's " See also:

• PARAMOUNT (Anglo-Fr. paramont, up above, par el mont, up or on top of the mountain)

The arrangement was not to be retrospective in any sense. Vested interests were to be strictly guarded until the See also:

• LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

On the one hand, she figured as the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

Having waged two wars on account of Korea, Japan emerged from the second conflict with the conviction that the policy of maintaining the independence of Korea must be Japan In modified, and that since the identity of Korean and Korea after Japanese, interests in the Far East and the paramount the War character of Japanese interests in Korea would not with permit Japan to leave Korea to the care of any third Russia. power, she must assume the charge herself. Europe and America also recognized that view of the situation, and consented to withdraw their legations from Seoul, thus leaving the control of Korean foreign affairs entirely in the hands of Japan, who further undertook to assume military direction in the event of aggression from without or disturbance from within. But in the matter of See also:

• INTERNAL

The troops were a body of use-less mercenaries. Offices being allotted by sale, thousands of incapables thronged the ranks of the executive. The emperor's court was crowded by diviners and plotters of all kinds, male and female. The finances of the throne and those of the state were hopelessly confused. There was nothing like an organized judiciary. A witness was in many cases considered particeps criminis; torture was commonly employed to obtain evidence, and defendants in civil cases were placed under arrest. Imprisonment meant death or permanent disablement for a man of small means. Flogging so severe as to cripple, if not to kill, was a common punishment; every major offence from See also:

• ROBBERY (from O. Fr. rober, to steal)

She necessarily chose the latter alternative, and the things which she accomplished between the beginning of 1906 and the close of 1908 may be briefly described as the elaboration of a proper system of taxation; the organization of a staff to administer annual budgets; the re-See also:

• ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. assessare, to sit beside, to judge)

They are not immortal: it is explicitly stated that they ultimately pass away, and the idea of the cosmographers seems to be that each deity marks a gradual approach to human methods of pro-creation. Meanwhile the earth is "young and, like floating oil, drifts about after the manner of a jelly-See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

This grandson of Amaterasu (the goddess of the sun) is called Ninigi, whose great-grandson figures in Japanese history as the first human sovereign of the country, known during life as Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Biko, and given the name of Jimmu tenno (Jimmu, son of heaven) fourteen centuries after his death. Japanese See also:

• ANNALISTS (from Lat. annas, year; hence annales, sc. libri, annual records)

This campaign of seven years is described in some detail, but no satisfactory information is given as to the nature of the craft in which the invader and his troops voyaged, or as to the number of men under his command. The weapons said to have been carried were bows, spears and swords. A super-natural element is imported into the narrative in the form of the three-legged See also:

• CROW (Dutch, kraal, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus)

During his era the land was troubled by pestilence and the people broke out in rebellion; calamities which were supposed to be caused by the spirit of the ancient ruler of Izumo to avenge a want of consideration shown to his descendants by their supplanters. Divination—by a Chinese process—and visions revealed the source of trouble; rites of worship were performed in honour of the ancient ruler, his descendant being entrusted with the duty, and the pestilence ceased. We now hear for the first time of vigorous measures to quell the aboriginal savages, doubtless the See also:

• AINU (" man ")

With this See also:

• PARENTHESIS (from Gr. 1rapev,rdAvat, put in alongside)

The See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)