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REPORTING
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REPORTING , the See also:art or business of reproducing in readable See also:form, mainly for See also:newspapers, but also for such publications as the See also:Parliamentary or See also:Law Reports, the words of speeches, or describing in narrative form the events, in contemporary See also:history, by means of the notes made by persons known generally as reporters. The See also:special business of reporting is a comparatively See also:modern one, since it must not be confounded with the See also:general practice of quoting, or of See also:mere narrative, which is as old as See also:writing. There was no truly systematic reporting until the beginning of the 19th See also:century, though there was parliamentary reporting of a See also:kind almost from the See also:time when parliaments began, just as law reporting (which goes back to 1292) began in the form of notes taken by lawyers of discussions in See also:court. The first attempts at parliamentary reporting, in the sense of seeking to make known to the public what was done and said in See also:parliament, began in a pamphlet published monthly in See also:Queen See also:Anne's time called The See also:Political See also:State. Its reports were mere indications of speeches. Later, the See also:Gentleman's See also:Magazine began to publish reports of parliamentary debates. See also:Access to the Houses of Parliament was obtained by See also:Edward See also:Cave (q.v.), the publisher of this magazine, and some of his See also:friends, and they took surreptitiously what notes they could. These were subsequently transcribed and brought into shape for publication by another See also:hand. Dr See also: A See also:standing See also:order was passed in 1728, which declared " that it is an indignity to, and a See also:breach of, the See also:privilege of this House for any See also:person to presume to give, in written or printed See also:news-papers, any account or See also:minute of the debates or other proceedings; that upon See also:discovery of the authors, printers or publishers of any such newspaper this House will proceed against the offenders with the utmost severity." Under this and other standing orders, Cave's reports were challenged, with the result that they appeared without the proper names of the speakers, and under the See also:guise of " Debates in the See also:Senate of Lilliput,"
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or some other like See also:title. See also:France was Blefuscu; See also:London was Mildendo; pounds were sprugs; the See also:duke of See also:Newcastle was the Nardac secretary of state; See also:Lord See also:Hardwicke was the Hurgo Hickrad; and See also: Consequently the verbatim reports, though now no longer hindered by law, and made possible by shorthand (which was first employed in the service of parliament in 18oz) and by all the arts of communication and See also:reproduction, are considerably restricted.
But parliamentary See also:work is only a small part of newspaper reporting. The newspapers in the beginning of the loth century rarely contained more than the barest outline of any speech or public address delivered in or in the neighbourhood of the towns where they were published. After the See also:peace of 1815 a See also:period of much political See also:fermentation set in, and the newspapers began to report the speeches of public men at greater length. It was not, however, until well into what may be called the railway era that any frequent effort was made by See also:English newspapers to go out of their own See also:district for the work of reporting. The London newspapers had before this led the way. See also:Early in the rgth century, greater freedom of access to both Houses was given, and the manager of the Morning Chronicle established a See also:staff of reporters. Each reporter took his " turn "—that is, he took notes of the proceedings for a certain time, and then gave See also:place to a colleague. The reporter who was relieved at once extended his notes, and thus prompt publication of the debates was made possible. The practice grew until there was a See also:good See also:deal of competition among the papers as to which should first issue a report of any speech of See also:note in the See also:country. Reporters had frequently to ride long distances in post-chaises, doing their best as they jolted along the roads to transcribe their notes, so that they might be ready for the printer on arrival at their destination. See also: One result was that the provincial news-papers were stimulated to greater efforts, and as daily news-papers sprang up in all directions, and the electric See also:telegraph provided greater facilities for reporting, the old supremacy of the London See also:journals in this See also:department of newspaper work gradually disappeared. No public See also:man made a speech but it was faithfully reproduced in print. See also:Local governing bodies, charitable institutions, political associations, public companies —all these came in a See also:short time to furnish work for the reporter, and had full attention paid to them. By the second half of the rgth century, parliamentary reporting was a leading feature of the London newspapers. They had a See also:monopoly of it. All the reporting arrangements in the House of Lords and in the House of Commons were made with See also:sole regard to their requirements., , There had indeed been a long See also:battle between The Times and some of the other London newspapers as to which should have the best parliamentary report, and The Times had established its supremacy, which has never been shaken. The provincial newspapers were in the See also:main obliged to copy the London reports, and rarely made any See also:attempt to get reports of their own. When the electric telegraph came into use for commercial purposes a See also:change began. The See also:company which first carried wires from London to the See also:principal towns in the country started a reporting service for the country newspapers. In addition, it procured See also:admission to the parliamentary galleries for reporters in its employment, and began to send short accounts of the debates to the newspapers in the country. These news-papers were thus enabled to publish in the morning some account of the parliamentary proceedings of the previous See also:night, instead of having to take like reports a See also:day later from the London journals. The telegraph companies (not yet taken over by the state) for a long time could or would do no more than they had begun by doing; and they offered no inducements to the provincial newspapers to telegraph speeches. The public meanwhile wanted to know more fully what their representatives were saying in parliament, and gradually the leading provincial newspapers adopted the practice of employing reporters in the service of the London journals to report debates on subjects of special See also:interest in localities; and these reports, forwarded by See also:train or by post, were printed in full, but of course a day See also:late. The London papers paid little attention to debates of local interest, and thus the provincial papers had parliamentary reporting which was not to be found elsewhere. See also:Bit by bit this feature was See also:developed. It was greatly accelerated by a See also:movement which the Scotsman was the first to bring about. About r865, a new company having come into existence, it was agreed that wires from London should be put at the disposal of such newspapers as desired them. Each newspaper was to have the use of a See also:wire—of course on See also:payment of a large subscription—from six o'See also:clock at night till three o'clock in the morning. This was the beginning of the " special wire " which now plays so important a part in the See also:production of almost all newspapers. The arrangement was first made by the Scotsman and by other newspapers in See also:Scotland. The special wires were used to their utmost capacity to convey reports of the speeches of leading statesmen and politicians; and, instead of See also:bare summaries of what had been done, the newspapers contained See also:pretty full reports. When the telegraphs were taken over by the state in r87o the facilities for reporting were increased in every direction. The London papers, with the exception of The Times, had given less and less attention to parliamentary debates, while on the. other hand several of the provincial newspapers were giving more space than ever to the debates. These newspapers had to get their reports as best they could. The demand for such reporting had led, on the passing of the telegraphs into the hands of the state, to the formation of news agencies, which undertook to See also:supply the provincial papers. These agencies were admitted to the reporters' galleries in the Houses of Parliament, but the reports which any agency supplied were identical; that is to say, all the newspapers taking a particular class of report had exactly the same material supplied to them —the reporter producing the number of copies required by means of manifold copying See also:paper. Accordingly attempts were made to get See also:separate reports by engaging the services of some of the reporters employed by the London papers. The " gallery" was shut to all See also:save the London papers and the news agencies. The Scotsman sought in vain to break through this exclusiveness. The See also:line, it was said, must be See also:drawn somewhere, and the proper place to draw it was at the London Press. Once that line was departed from every newspaper in the kingdom must have admission. But in 188o a select See also:committee of the House of Commons was appointed to consider the question. It took See also:evidence, and it reported in favour of the See also:extension of the gallery and of the admission of provincial papers. The result was that three or four papers which would be satisfied with the same report joined in providing the necessary reporting staff. In other cases individual newspapers put themselves on the same footing as the London newspapers by engaging separate staffs of reporters. The effect of telegraphic improvements may be partially gauged by the fact that in 1871 the number of words handed in for transmission through the See also:British Post See also:Office for Press purposes (special rates being allowed) was 22,000,000, and that in 1900 it had risen to 835,000,000. Meanwhile the See also:evolution of the modern newspaper had brought many other kinds of reporting, besides parliamentary, into See also:play. What is commonly called " descriptive reporting " has in some cases nearly shouldered the reporting of speeches out of news-papers. The special correspondent or the See also:war correspondent is a news- papers. descriptive reporter." The interviewer " came into See also:great prominence during the " eighties " and " nineties," and the See also:influence of See also:American journalistic methods, which made See also:smart reporting the most valuable commercial asset of the popular newspaper, and the reporter correspondingly important, spread to other countries. No daily newspaper now confines its reporting to the affairs of the part of the country in which it is published. The electric telegraph has made the work of the reporter more arduous and his responsibility greater. The variety of work open to reporting causes considerable difference, of course, in the professional status of the journalists who do such work. This subject generally is discussed in the See also:article NEWSPAPERS, but one instance of the recognition of the modern reporter's responsibility is See also:worth special mention. In the See also:year 1900, in the English See also:case of See also:Waller v. See also:Lane (see See also:COPYRIGHT), it was decided, on the final See also:appeal to the House of Lords, that the reporter of a speech, printed verbatim in a newspaper, was under the Copyright See also:Act of 1842 to be considered the " author." Absurd as it might seem to See also:call the reporter the author of another man's speech, the decision gave effect to the fact that it is his labour and skill which bring into existence the " copy " to which alone can right of See also:property attach. Strictly speaking, he is the author of the report of the speech; but for See also:literary purposes the report is the speech. It must, however, be See also:borne in mind that there may be more than one verbatim report, and therefore more than one " author." See also NEWSPAPERS; SHORTHAND; PRESS See also:LAWS; TELEGRAPH. REPOUSS$ (Fr. " driven back "), the art of raising designs upon See also:metal by hammering from the back, while the " ground " is See also:left relatively untouched (see METAL WORK and See also:PLATE). The See also:term is often loosely used, being applied indifferently to " See also:embossing." Embossing is also called " repousse sur coquille " and " estampage," but the latter consists of embossing by See also:mechanical means and is therefore not to be considered as an art See also:process. Moreover, it reverses the method of repousse, the work being done from the front, and by See also:driving down the ground leaving the See also:design in See also:relief. See also:Gold, See also:silver, See also:bronze, See also:brass, etc., being easily malleable metals, are specially suitable to repousse, which at the See also:present day, in its finer forms, is mainly employed for silver-plate and See also:jewelry. The silver-plate in repousse of See also: These repousse emblemata were usually of another metal and applied to the See also:vase which they decorated; indeed repousse was of leading importance in caelatura, or the metallic art (statuaryexcepted) of classic times. Thus the patera of Hildesheim, the patera of See also:Rennes, and the earlier shoulder-plate of the Siris bronze may be accepted as illustrative of the highest development of repousse.
The art was not only See also:Greek and Graeco-Roman in its early practice; it was pursued also by the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, and other See also:oriental peoples, as well as in See also:Cyprus and elsewhere, and was carried forward, almost without a break, although with much depreciation of See also:style and execution, into See also:medieval times. In the rrth century the See also:emperor See also: The tools include hammers, punches (in numerous shapes for tracing, raising, grounding, See also:chasing and texturing the surfaces), together with a special See also:anvil called in See also:French a recingle or ressing, in English " snarl." The recingle, or small anvil with projecting upturned point, was known in the 16th century. This point is introduced into the hollow of the vase or other See also:vessel such as See also:punch and See also:hammer cannot freely enter, which it is desired to See also:ornament with reliefs. A See also:blow of a hammer on that part of the anvil where the prolongation first projects from it, produces, by the return See also:spring, a corresponding blow at the point which the operator desires to apply within the vase. The same effect is produced by the modern " snarl " or " snarling See also:iron "—a See also:bar of See also:steel, with an See also:inch or two of the smaller end upturned and ending in a knob—held firmly in a tightly screwed-up See also:vice, whereby the blow is similarly repeated or echoed by vibration. The repousse work, when See also:complete, is afterwards finished at the front and chased up. The same vase, to be worked up by embossing, would be filled with " See also:cement " and laid on a sand-bag, and finally the whole would be heated and the cement run out. In the case of repousse the vase itself may be beaten up out of the metal on the pitch-block. It must be understood that in order to obtain a result not merely excellent in technique but See also:artistic and unmechanical in effect, the blows of the hammer must be made with feeling and " sentiment," otherwise the result cannot be a work of art. See C. G. See also:Leland, Repousse Work (New See also:York, 1885) ; and Gaw. thorp, A See also:Manual of Instruction in the Art of Repousse (London, and ed., 1899). (M. H. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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