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early as 1200. The first effects of this immense acquisition of new material were markedly unsettling on the doctrinal orthodoxy of the time. The apocryphal Neoplatonic treatises and the First views of the Arabian commentators obscured for the effects of first students the genuine See also:

DOCTRINE

doctrine of Aristotle, and the the new 13th century opens with quite a See also:

CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop of mystical knowledge. heresies. The mystical See also:

PANTHEISM (Gr. 7rav, all, Oeos, god)

pantheism taught at See also:

Paris by Amalrich of Bena (d. 1207; see See also:

AMALRIC and See also:

MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

MYSTICISM), though based by him upon a revival of Scotus See also:

ERIGENA, JOHANNES SCOTUS (c. 800-c. 877)

Erigena, was doubtless connected in its origin with the Neoplatonic treatises which now become current. The See also:

IMMANENCE (from Lat. in-manere to dwell in, remain)

immanence of See also:

God in all things and His incarnation as the See also:

HOLY

Holy Spirit in themselves appear to have been the chief doctrines of the Amalricans. They are reported to have said, " Omnia unum, quia quicquid est est See also:

Deus." About the same time David of See also:

DINANT

Dinant, in a book De tomis (rendered by Albertus De divisionibus), taught the identity of God with See also:

MATTER

matter (or the indivisible principle of bodies) and nous (or the indivisible principle of intelligences)—an extreme See also:

REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

Realism culminating in a materialistic pantheism. If they were diverse, he argued, there must exist above them some higher or See also:

COMMON

common See also:

ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element or being, in which See also:

case this would be God, nous, or the See also:

ORIGINAL

original matter. The spread of the Amalrican doctrine led to fierce persecutions, and the provincial See also:

COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council which met at Paris in 1209 expressly decreed " that neither the books of Aristotle on natural philosophy, nor commentaries on the same, should be read, whether publicly or privately, at Paris." In 1215 this See also:

PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition is renewed in the statutes of the university of Paris, as sanctioned by the papal See also:

legate.

Permission was given to lecture on the logical books, both those which had been known all along and those introduced since 1128, but the See also:

VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto upon the Physics is extended to the Metaphysics and the summaries of the Arabian commentators. By 1231, however, the fears of the See also:

church were beginning to be allayed. A See also:

bull of See also:

Gregory IX. in that See also:

YEAR

year makes no mention of any Aristotelian works except the Physics. Finally, in 1254, we find the university officially prescribing how many See also:

HOURS, CANONICAL

hours are to be devoted to the explanation of the See also:

META

Meta-physics and the See also:

PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

PHYSICAL

physical treatises of Aristotle. These See also:

DATES

dates enable us to measure accurately the stages by which the church accommodated itself to, and as it were took See also:

possession of, the Aristotelian philosophy. Growing knowledge of Aristotle's works and the multiplication of See also:

TRANSLATIONS

translations enabled students to distinguish the genuine Aristotle from the questionable accompaniments with which he had made his first See also:

APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance in Western See also:

EUROPE

Europe. Fresh translations of Aristotle and Averroes had already been made from the Arabic (IIepi-rd 'uta io-ropias from the See also:

HEBREW

Hebrew) by See also:

Michael See also:

SCOT, MICHAEL (? 1175-1232)

Scot, and Hermannus Alamannus, at the instance of the See also:

EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

Frederick II.; so that the whole See also:

BODY

body of Aristotle's works was at See also:

hand in Latin translations from about 1210 to 1225. Soon afterwards efforts began to be made to secure more literal translations See also:

DIRECT

direct from the See also:

Greek. See also:

Robert See also:

GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (c. 1175—1253)

Grosseteste (d. 1253) was one of the first to stir in this matter, and he was followed by Albertus See also:

MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870)

Magnus and See also:

Thomas See also:

AQUINAS, THOMAS [Thomas of AQUIN or AQUINO], (c 1227--1274)

Aquinas. See also:

HALF

Half a century thus sufficed to remove the See also:

ban of the church, and soon Aristotle was recognized on all hands as " the philosopher " See also:

PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par excellence, the See also:

MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of those that know. It even became customary to draw a parallel between him as the praecursor Christi in naturalibus and See also:

John the Baptist, the praecursor Christi in gratuitis.

This unquestioned supremacy was not yielded, however, at the very beginning of the period. The earlier doctors who avail themselves of Aristotle's works, while bowing to his authority implicitly in matters of See also:

LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic, are generally found defending a Christianized See also:

PLATONISM

Platonism against the doctrine of the Metaphysics. So it is with Alexander of See also:

Hales (d. 1245), the first Scholastic who was acquainted with the whole of the Aristotelian works and the Alexander Arabian commentaries upon them. He was more of a of Hates. theologian than a philosopher; and in his chief work, Summa universae theologiae, he simply employs his in- creased philosophical knowledge in the demonstration of theological doctrines. So See also:

GREAT

great, however, did his achievement seem that he was honoured with the titles of See also:

DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

Doctor irrefragabilis and Theologorum monarcha. Alexander of Hales belonged to the Franciscan See also:

order, and it is See also:

worth remarking that it was the mendicant orders Mendicant which now came forward as the protagonists of Christian learning and faith and, as it were, reconquered Aristotle friars. for the church. During the first half of the 13th century, when the university of Paris was plunged in angry feuds with the See also:

MUNICIPALITY

municipality, feuds which even led at one time (1229) to the See also:

FLIGHT

flight of the students in a body, the friars established teachers in their See also:

con-vents in Paris. After the university had settled its quarrels these continued to See also:

TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach, and soon became formidable rivals of the See also:

SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular lecturers. After a severe struggle for academical recognition they were finally admitted to all the privileges of the university by a bull of Alexander IV. in 1253. The See also:

FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey)

Franciscans took the See also:

lead in this intellectual See also:

MOVEMENT

movement with Alexander of Hales and See also:

BONAVENTURA, SAINT (JOHN OF FIDANZA)

Bonaventura, but the See also:

DOMINICANS

Dominicans were soon able to boast of two greater names in See also:

Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas.

Still later See also:

DUNS

Duns Scotus and See also:

OCCAM, WILLIAM OF (d. c. 1349)

Occam were both Franciscans. Alexander of Hales was succeeded John of in his See also:

CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair of instruction by his See also:

PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil John of Rochelle, Rocheue, who died in 1271 but taught only till 1253. His See also:

TREATISE

treatise De anima, on which Haureau See also:

LAYS

lays particular stress, is interesting as showing the greater See also:

SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope now given to psychological discussions. This was a natural result of acquaintance with Aristotle's De anima and the numerous Greek and Arabian commentaries upon it, and it is observable in most of the writers that have still to be mentioned. Even the nature of the universals is no longer discussed from a purely logical or metaphysical point of view, but becomes connected with psychological questions. And, on the whole, the widening of intellectual interests is the chief feature by which the second period of See also:

SCHOLASTICISM

Scholasticism may be distinguished from the first. In some respects there is more freshness and See also:

INTEREST

interest in i3ener/ the speculations which burst forth so ardently in the end of Gene See also:

aer- the I1th and the first half of the 12th century. Albert and charact istics of Aquinas no doubt stood on a higher level than See also:

Anselm second and See also:

ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142)

Abelard, not merely by their wider range of knowledge period. but also by the intellectual massiveness of their achieve- ments; but it may be questioned whether the earlier writers did not possess a greater force of originality and a keener See also:

TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent. Originality was at no time the strong point of the See also:

MIDDLE

middle ages, but in the later period it was almost of See also:

NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity buried under the See also:

mass of material suddenly thrust upon the See also:

AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, to be assimilated. On the other hand, the influence of this new material is everywhere evident in the wider range of questions which are discussed by the doctors of the period. Interest is no longer to the same extent concentrated on the one question of the universals. Other questions, says Haureau, are placed on the order of the day—the question of the elements of substance, that of the principle of individuation, that of the origin of the ideas, of the manner of their existence in the human understanding and in the divine thought, as well as various others of equal interest " (i.

420). Some of these, it may be said, are simply the old Scholastic problem in a different garb; but the ex-tended See also:

HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon of which Haureau speaks is amply proved by See also:

mere reference to the treatises of Albert and St Thomas. They there seek to reproduce for their own time all the departments of the Aristotelian See also:

SYSTEM

system.

End of Article: CLASSICS

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