SCHOLASTICISM , the name usually employed to denote the most typical products of See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Scholasticism in the widest sense thus extends from the 9th to the end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

The Schoolmen contemplate the universe of nature and See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

For Erigena, therefore, the speculative reason is the supreme arbiter; and in accordance with its results the utterances of Scripture and of the church have not infrequently to be subjected to an allegorical or mystical See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

" The See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

Reason, if admitted at all, must ultimately claim the whole man. Anselm's See also:

• MOTTO (an Italian word, from Late Lat. muttum, a low sound, a mutter or murmur, cf. mutere, to mutter; the Latin word also gives Fr. mot, word)

A single See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

To form a proper estimate of the first See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

The grandly conceived system of Erigena (see ERIGENA and See also:

• MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

Moreover, Erigena again and again declares that dialectic has to do with the stadia of a real or divine See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

There were Nominalists before Roscellinus among these early thinkers. Alcuin (q.v.) does nothing more in his Dialectic than abridge Boetius and the other commentators. But in the school of Fulda, presided over by his See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

As Cousin says, " Realism and Nominalism were undoubtedly there in germ, but their true principles with their necessary consequences remained profoundly unknown; their connexion with all the great questions of See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

In the monastery of St Gall there was considerable logical activity, but nothing of philosophical See also:

• INTEREST

Roscellinus (d. c. 1125) was looked upon by later times as the originator of the sententia vocum, that is to say, of Nominalism proper. From the scanty and See also:

• ILL

Like most innovators, Roscellinus stated his position in bold language, which emphasized his opposition to accepted doctrines; and his words, if not his intentions, involved the extreme Nominalism which, by making universality merely subjective, pulverizes existence into detached particulars. And, though we may acquit Roscellinus of consciously propounding a theory so subversive of all knowledge, his criticism of the doctrine of the Trinity is See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

To Anselm specially belongs the motto Credo lit intelligem, or, as it is School of for nearly two centuries not so much for its dialectics Chartres. and philosophy as for its humanistic culture. The account which John of See also:

• SALISBURY
• SALISBURY, EARLS OF
• SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNECECIL, 3RD MARQUESS OF (1830-1903)
• SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1565-1612)
• SALISBURY, THOMAS DE MONTACUTE, 4TH EARL OF (1388-1428)
• SALISBURY, WILLIAM LONGSWORD (or LONGESPEE), EARL OF (d. 1226)

Besides its connexion with the speculations of Anselm, the doctrine of Roscellinus was also of decisive influence within the schools hi crystallizing the opposite opinion. "fi°m William of Champeaux (lo70-1s21), who is reputed of cn8m= the founder of a definitely formulated Realism, much pesos. as Roscellinus is regarded as the founder of Nominalism, was instructed by Roscellinus himself in dialectic. Unfortunately none of William's philosophical works have survived, and we depend upon the statements of his opponent Abelard, in the Historia calamitatum mearum, and in certain See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

Criticism was speedily at work upon William of Champeaux's position. He had said expressly that the universal essence, by the addition of the individual forms, was individualized and present secundum totam suam quantitatem in each individual. But if homo is wholly and essentially present in Socrates, then it is, as it were, absorbed in Socrates; where Socrates is not, it cannot be, consequently not in Plato and the other individua hominis. This was called the argument of the homo Socraticus; and it appears to have been with the view of obviating such time and space difficulties, emphasized in the criticism of Abelard, that William latterly modified his form of expression. But his second position is enveloped in considerable obscurity. Abelard says, " Sic autem correxit sententiam, ut deinceps rem eamdem non essentialiter sed individualiter diceret." In other words, he merely sought to avoid the awkward consequences of his own doctrine by substituting " individualiter " for " essentialiter " in his See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

If, however, we are more ill-natured, we may regard the phrase, with Prantl, as simply a meaningless makeshift in extremities; and if so, Abelard's account of the subsequent decline of William's reputation would be explained. But there is in some of the manuscripts the various See also:

• READING

The universal consists of the non-different elements or attributes in the separate individuals, which alone exist substantially. If we restrict attention to these non-different elements, the individual becomes for us the species, the genus, &c. ; everything depends on the point of view from which we regard it. " Nihil omnino est praeter individuum, sed et illud aliter et aliter attentum species et genus et generalissimum est." See also:

• ADELARD (or AETHELARD)

William of Conches, a pupil of Bernard's, devoting himself to psycho-logical and physiological questions, was of less importance for the specific logico-metaphysical problem. But See also:

• GILBERT
• GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS
• GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603)
• GILBERT, ALFRED (1854– )
• GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904)
• GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843– )
• GILBERT, J
• GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889)
• GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA [" LOLA MONTEZ "] (1818-1861)
• GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751–1780)
• GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583)
• GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901)
• GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836– )

In God, who is pure form without matter, the archetypes of material things exist as eternal immaterial forms. In this way Gilbert was at once Aristotelian and Platonist. The distinctions made by him above amount to a formal criticism of categories, and in the same spirit he teaches that no one of the categories can be applied in its literal sense to God (see further GILBERT DE LA PORREE). But the outstanding figure in the controversies of the first half of the r 2th century is Abelard. There is considerable Abelard. difference of.opinion as to his system, some, like See also:

• RITTER, HEINRICH (1791-1869)
• RITTER, KARL (1779–1859)

For that system still seems to recognize a generic substance as the core of the individual, whereas, according to Cousin's rendering of Abelard's doctrine, " only individuals exist, and in the individual nothing but the individual." Holding fast then on the one hand to the individual as the only true substance, and on the other to the traditional definition of the genus as that which is predicated of a number of individuals (quod praedicatur de pluribus), Abelard declared that this definition of itself condemns the Realistic theory; only a name, not a thing, can be so predicated—not the name, however, as a flatus vocis or a collection of letters, but the name as used in discourse, the name as a sign, as having a meaning—in a word, not vox but sermo. Sermo est praedicabilis. By these distinctions Abelard hoped to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

He zealously combated the Tritheism of Roscellinus, but his own views on the $ernard of Trinity were condemned by two See also:

• COUNCILS

And even the proposal to apply the unaided reason to solve questions which had divided the fathers must have been resented by the more rigid churchmen as the rash intrusion of an over-confident Rationalism. Realism was in the beginning of the 12th century the dominant doctrine and the doctrine of the church; the Nominalists were the innovators and the especial representatives of the Rationalistic tendency. In See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

Dectiae of The speculative impulse was exhausted which marks logic, the end of the 11th and the first half of the 12th century —a period more original and more interesting in many ways than the great age of Scholasticism in the 13th century. By the middle of the century, logical studies had lost to a great extent their real interest and application, and had degenerated into trivial displays of ingenuity. On the other hand, the Summists' occupied themselves merely in the systematizing of authorities. The mystics held aloof from both, and devoted themselves to the See also:

• PRACTICAL

1164), called the Magister sententiarum, whose work became the text-book of the schools, and remained so for centuries. Hundreds of commentaries were written upon it. Peter of Poitiers, the pupil of Peter the Lombard, flourished about 116o-1170. Other names are Robert of See also:

• MELUN