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request and for their spiritual edification. It shows a clear discernment of the dangers of the ascetic life, and a deep insight into the significance of the Augustinian See also:

DOCTRINE

doctrine of See also:

grace. Sometime before 1040 Berengar was made See also:

ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. &oxt3tauovor)

archdeacon of See also:

ANGERS

Angers. It was shortly after this that rumours began to spread of his holding heretical views regarding the See also:

SACRAMENT

sacrament of the See also:

EUCHARIST (Gr. evXapurria, thanksgiving)

eucharist. He had submitted the doctrine of See also:

TRANSUBSTANTIATION

transubstantiation (already generally received both by priests and See also:

PEOPLE

people, although in the See also:

west it had been first unequivocally taught and reduced to a See also:

REGULAR

regular theory by Paschasius Radbert in 831) to an See also:

INDEPENDENT

independent examination, and had come to the conclusion that it was contrary to See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason, unwarranted by Scripture, and inconsistent with the teaching of men like See also:

Ambrose, See also:

Jerome and See also:

Augustine. He did not conceal this conviction from his scholars and See also:

friends, and through them the See also:

REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report spread widely that he denied the See also:

COMMON

common doctrine respecting the eucharist. His early friend and school See also:

COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

companion, Adelmann, archdeacon of See also:

Liege, wrote to him letters of expostulation on the subject of this report in 1046 and 1048; and a See also:

bishop, See also:

Hugo of See also:

LANGRES

Langres, wrote (about 1049) a refutation of the views which he had himself heard Berengar See also:

EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express in conversation. Berengar's belief was not shaken by their arguments and exhortations, and See also:

HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing that See also:

LANFRANC (d. 1089)

Lanfranc, the most celebrated theologian of that See also:

AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, strongly approved the doctrine of Paschasius and condemned that of " Scotus " (really See also:

RATRAMNUS (d. c. 868)

Ratramnus), he wrote to him a See also:

LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter expressing his surprise and urging him to reconsider the question. The letter, arriving at Bec when Lanfranc was absent at See also:

Rome (r050), was sent after him, but was opened before it reached him, and Lanfranc, fearing the See also:

SCANDAL

scandal, brought it under the See also:

NOTICE

notice of See also:

Pope See also:

Leo IX. Because of it Berengar was condemned as a heretic without being heard, by a See also:

synod at Rome and another at See also:

VERCELLI (anc. Vercellae)

Vercelli, both held in 1050.

His enemies in France See also:

CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast him into See also:

PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison; but the bishop of Angers and other powerful friends, of whom he had a considerable number, had sufficient See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence to procure his See also:

RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare)

release. At the See also:

COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of Tours (10J4) he found a See also:

PROTECTOR

protector in the papal See also:

legate, the famous See also:

HILDEBRAND, LAY OF (Deis Hildebrandslied)

Hildebrand, who, satisfied himself with the fact that Berengar did not deny the real presence of See also:

Christ in the sacra-See also:

MENTAL

mental elements, succeeded in persuading the See also:

ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly to be See also:

con-See also:

TENT

tent with a See also:

general See also:

CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

confession from him that the See also:

BREAD

bread and See also:

WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine, after See also:

CONSECRATION (Lat. consecrallo, from con and sacrare, " to make sacred ")

consecration, were the See also:

BODY

body and See also:

BLOOD

blood of the See also:

Lord, without requiring him to define how. Trusting in Hildebrand's support, and in the See also:

JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice of his own cause, he presented himself at the synod of Rome in 1059, but found himself surrounded by zealots, who forced him by the fear of.See also:

DEATH

death to signify his See also:

ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of the doctrine " that the bread and wine, after consecration, are not merely a sacrament, but the true body and the true blood of Christ, and that this body is touched and broken by the hands of the priests, and ground by the See also:

TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth of the faithful, not merely in a sacramental but in a real manner." He had no sooner done so than he bitterly repented his weakness; and acting, as he himself says, on the principle that " to take an See also:

OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath which never ought to have been taken is to estrange one's self from See also:

God, but to retract what one has wrongfully sworn to, is to return back to God," when he got safe again into France he attacked the transubstantiation theory more vehemently than ever. He continued for about sixteen years to disseminate his views by See also:

writing and teaching, without being directly interfered with by either his See also:

CIVIL

civil or ecclesiastical superiors, greatly to the scandal of the multitude and of the zealots, in whose eyes Berengar was "ille apostolus Satanae," and the See also:

academy of Tours the " Babylonnostri temporis." An See also:

ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt was made at the council of See also:

POITIERS

Poitiers in 1076 to allay the agitation caused by the controversy, but it failed, and Berengar narrowly escaped death in a tumult. Hildebrand, now pope as See also:

Gregory VII., next sumrnoned him to Rome, and, in a synod held there in 1078, tried once more to obtain a See also:

DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration of his orthodoxy by means of a confession of faith See also:

DRAWN

drawn up in general terms; but even this strong-minded and strong-willed pontiff was at length forced to yield to the demands of the multitude and its leaders; and in another synod at Rome (1079), finding that he was only endangering his own position and reputation, he turned unexpectedly upon Berengar and commanded him to confess that 'he had erred in not teaching a See also:

CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change as to substantial reality of the sacramental bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. " Then," says Berengar, " confounded by the sudden madness of the pope, and because God in See also:

PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment for my sins did not give me a steadfast See also:

heart, I threw myself on the ground, and confessed with impious See also:

VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice that I had erred, fearing the pope would instantly pronounce against me the See also:

SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence of condemnation, and, as a necessary consequence, that the populace would See also:

HURRY (or URRV), SIR JOHN (d. 165o)

hurry me to the worst of deaths." He was kindly dismissed by the pope not See also:

long after, with a letter recommending him to the See also:

PROTECTION

protection of the bishops of Tours and Angers, and another pronouncing See also:

ANATHEMA (from Gr. avarz6 'cu, to lift up)

anathema on all who should do him any injury or See also:

CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call him a heretic. He returned See also:

home overwhelmed with shame and bowed down with sorrow for having a second See also:

time been guilty of a great impiety. He immediately recalled his forced confession, and besought all See also:

Christian men " to pray for him, so that his tears might secure the pity of the Almighty." He now saw, however, that the spirit of the age was against him, and hopelessly given over to the belief of what he had combated as a delusion. He withdrew, therefore, into solitude, and passed the See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of his life in retirement and See also:

prayer on the See also:

ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of St C8me near Tours. He died there in io88. Berengar See also:

LEFT

left behind him a considerable number of followers. All those who in the See also:

MIDDLE

middle ages denied the substantial presence of the body and blood of Christ in the eucharist were commonly designated Berengarians.

They differed, of course, in many respects, even in regard to the nature of the supper. Berengar's own views on the subject may be thus summed up: r. That bread and wine should become flesh and blood and yet not lose the properties of bread and wine was, he held, contradictory to reason, and therefore irreconcilable with the truthfulness of God. 2. He admitted a change (conversio) of the bread and wine into the body of Christ, in the sense that to those who receive them they are transformed by grace into higher See also:

POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers and influences —into the true, the intellectual or spiritual body of Christ. The unbelieving receive the See also:

EXTERNAL

external sign or sacramentum; but the believing receive in addition, although invisibly, the reality re-presented by the sign, the res sacramenti. 3. He rejected the notion that the sacrament of the See also:

ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar was a constantly renewed See also:

SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice, and held it to be merely a See also:

COMMEMORATION

commemoration of the one sacrifice of Christ. 4. He dwelt strongly on the importance of men looking away from the externals of the sacrament to the spirit of love and piety. The transubstantiation doctrine seemed to him full of evil, from its tendency to See also:

lead men to overvalue what was sensuous and transitory. 5.

He rejected with indignation the miraculous stories told to confirm the doctrine of transubstantiation. 6. Reason and Scripture seemed to him the only grounds on which a true doctrine of the Lord's supper could be rested. He attached little importance to See also:

mere ecclesiastical tradition or authority, and none to the voice of majorities, even when sanctioned by the See also:

DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of a pope. In this, as in other respects, he was a precursor of Protestantism. The opinions of Berengar are to be ascertained from the See also:

WORKS

works written in refutation of them by Adelmann, Lanfranc, Guitmund, &c.; from the fragments of the De sacr. coena adv. Lanfr. See also:

LIBER

liber, edited by Staudlin (1820-1829) ; and from the Liber posterior, edited by A. F. and F. T. See also:

Vischer (1834). See the collection of texts by Sudendorf (185o) ; the See also:

Church Histories of See also:

GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG (1792–1854)

Gieseler, ii. 396-411 (Eng. trans.), and See also:

Neander, vi.

221-26o (Eng. trans.) ; A. See also:

HARNACK, ADOLF (1851– )

Harnack's See also:

HISTORY

History of See also:

DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

Dogma; See also:

HAUREAU, (JEAN) BARTHELEMY (1812-1896)

Haureau's Histoire de la philosophie scolastique, i. 225-238; See also:

Hermann See also:

Reuter, Geschichte der religiosen Aufkldrung See also:

des Mittelalters, vol. i. (See also:

Berlin, 1875) ; L. See also:

SCHWABE, SAMUEL HEINRICH (1789–1875)

Schwabe, Studien zur Geschichte des Zweiten Abendmahlstreits (1887); and W. Broecking, " See also:

Bruno von Angers and Berengar von Tours," in Deutsche Zeiischrift See also:

FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur Geschichtswissenschaft (vol. xii., 1895).

End of Article: BERENGARIUS [BERENGAR] (d. io88)

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