See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

North Semitic.—The earliest authority for any North Semitic language is that of the Tel-el-Amarna tablets (15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

- Since the publication of the Corpus Inscr. Senn it has been customary to treat papyri along with inscriptions, and for palaeographical reasons it is convenient to do so. Hebrew papyri are few, all in square character and. not of great interest. The longest, and probably the earliest (6th century A.D.), is one now in the Bodleian Library at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

The few Samaritan inscriptions in existence are neither early nor interesting. Closely related to the See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

They are chiefly votive, some dated in the 4th century, and some being perhaps as See also:

• LATE

Quart. Review, xvi. I. 2 Zeitsch. f. Aegypt. Spr. (1879). These were the first specimens found. See also See also:

• ERMAN, PAUL (1764-1851)

. . Rainer, i. 38 (Wien, 1886). 4 Those in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

Of shorter inscriptions there is a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

The language continued to be used in Egypt even in Ptolemaic times, as shown by a papyrus 12 (accounts) and ostrakon 13 containing Greek names, and belonging, to See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

A more complete collection has been prepared by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

I1' sec. xi. 297. See also Rip. d'tpigr. sem., for some smaller fragments, Nos. 244-248. See also:

• SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846- )

260. 44 See Lidzbarski„ See also:

• EPHEMERIS (Greek for a " diary ")

353), they must all belong to the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D. This accounts for the fact that already in the 6th century See also:

• COSMAS

The most important is the tariff of taxes on imports, dated A.D. 137. Nearly all were found on the See also:

• SURFACE

See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

1, p. 352. ' Reise in Syrien (Leipzig, 1883). 5 Inscriptions serei de la Syrie, &c. i. (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

S. Margoliouth agree) contends that the Sabaeans followed the Minaeans, whom they conquered in 820 B.C. Mention is made in a cuneiform text (See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

D. H. Muller 7 thinks that some of these belong to the earliest and others to the latest period of Sabaean power. The inscriptions hitherto found in Ethiopic (the alphabet of which is derived from the Sabaean) date from the 4th century A.D. onward. They are few in number, but long and of great historical importance. There can be no doubt that exploration, if it were possible, would bring many more to light. From time to time emigrants from the southern tribes settled in the north of Arabia. Mention has already been made of Minaean inscriptions found at al-'Ola, which is on the great See also:

• PILGRIM

Their date is uncertain, but they cannot be much earlier than the Safaitic, which resemble them in most respects. These last are called after the mountainous See also:

• DISTRICT

As. x., xvii., xix. 1° Zur Entzifferung d. Safd-Inschr. (Leipzig, 1901). and that they all belong to the first three centuries. They are found together with the earlier Greek and Latin graffiti of Roman soldiers and with later Moslem remarks in Kufic. Many of them are not yet published. BIBLIoGRAPHY—The best introductions are, for North Semitic, Lidzbarski's Handbuch d. nordsemitischen Epigraphik (Weimar, 1898) ; and G. A. See also:

• COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK (1756–1811)
• COOKE, JAY (1821–1905)
• COOKE, ROSE TERRY (1827-1892)

Sem. published up to 1910 are: pars i., torn. i., and torn. ii., fascc. 1-3, 1881–1908 (Phoenician); pars ii., torn. i., 1889–1902 (Aramaic with Nabataean), torn. ii., fasc. i., 1907 (Sinaitic) ; pars iv., tom i., fascc. 1-4, 1889–1908 (Himyaritic, including Minaean and Sabaean). In all these parts a full bibliography is given. For Palmyrene see de Vogue's Syrie Centrale (Paris, 1868–1877). Works on See also:

• SPECIAL

1011 to 1037. It was customary that such of the records on See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

In various parts of India there are found in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

The last-mentioned consist chiefly of seals and stamps for making seals. And one of these seal-stamps, belonging to about the commencement of the Christian era, is of particular interest in presenting its See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

For the great bulk of the inscriptions, however, stone was used: but See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

They have not even given us anything like the Dipavanhsa of See also:

• CEYLON

For the time anterior to about A.D. 400, we already have available in published form, more or less complete, the contents of between Iron and 1200 records, large and small; and the explorations of the Archaeological See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

Now, the essential part of the records was of course the See also:

• SPECIFICATION (from Med. Lat. specificatio, specificare, to enumerate or mention in detail)

A In. scripuors. classical name of Northern India is Aryavarta, " the See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

But those discoveries have still to be made; and matters stand just now as follows. From before the time of Anoka we have an inscription on a relic-See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

But, in addition to mentioning certain contemporaneous See also:

• FOREIGN

From the Hathigumpha cave near Cuttack, in Orissa, we have a record, to be placed about 140 B.C., of king Kharavela, a member of a dynasty which reigned in that part of India. From a cave at PabhOsa in the See also:

• ALLAHABAD

320 we have as yet but scanty help from the inscriptions in respect of the political history of Northern India: we are mostly dependent on the coins, which tend to indicate that that part of India was then broken up into a number of small sovereignties and tribal governments. An inscription, however, from Panjtar in the Ytisufzai territory mentions, without giving his name, a Kushan king whose dominion included that territory in A.D. 66. And an inscription of A.D. 242 from Mathura has been. understood to indicate that some descendant of the same stock was then reigning there. The inscriptional records for that period belong chiefly to Southern India. Meanwhile, however, in the south-west corner of Northern - India, namely in Kathiawar, there arose another foreign king, apparently of See also:

• PARTHIAN

See also:

• CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER (c.1655-173o)
• CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN (1784-1842)
• CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (1805-1861)

From Southern India we have, at Nasik, inscriptions of the Satavahana king Gautamiputra-Sri-Satakarni, mentioned just above, and of his son Vasisthiputra-Sri-Pulumayi, and of another king of that line named Gautamiputra-Sri-Yajna-Satakarni; and other records of the last-mentioned king come from Kanheri near Bombay, and from the Kistna district, Madras, and testify to the wide extent of the dominions of the line to which he be-longed. The records of this king carry us on to the opening years of the 3rd century, soon after which time, in those parts at any rate, the power of the Satavahana kings came to an end. And we have next, also from Nasik, an inscription of an Abhira king named Isvarasena, son of Sivadatta; in this last-mentioned See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

Reverting to Northern India, we have from the extreme north-west a few inscriptions dated in the era of 58 B.C. which carry us on to A.D. 322. The See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

We have thus brought our survey of the inscriptions of India down to the 6th century A.D. There then arose various dynasties in different parts of the country: in Northern India, is Kathiawar, the Maitrakas of Valabhi; at See also:

• KANAUJ

See also:

• LASSEN, CHRISTIAN (1800-1876)
• LASSEN, EDUARD (1830-19o4)

It is, however, admitted that the earliest known form of the Brahmi is a script framed by Brahmans for writing Sanskrit. Also, the theory is largely based on a See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

320. But a remarkable exception is found in the inscription of Rudradaman, dated in A.D. 150, at Junagadh in Kathiawar (mentioned on a preceding See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

With the exception, however, of that record and of the few which are mentioned just below, the inscriptional language of Southern India appears to have been generally Prakrit of one kind or another until about A.D. 400, or perhaps even somewhat later. Sankrit figures first in one of the records at Nasik of Rishabhadatta (Ushavadata), son-in-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

And from this latter date the language figures freely in the southern records. But some of the vernaculars, in their older forms, shortly begin to present them-selves alongside of it; and, without entirely superseding Sanskrit even to the latest times, the use of them for inscriptional purposes became rapidly more and more extensive. The vernacular that first makes its appearance is Kanarese, in a record of the Chalukya king Matigalesa, of the period A.D. 597 to 608, at Badami in the Bijapur district, Bombay. Tamil appears next, between about A.D. 6io and 675, in records of the Pallava king Mahendravarman I. at Vallam in the Chingalpat (See also:

• CHINGLEPUT, or CHENGALPAT

1207, of the time of the Devagiri-Yadava king Singhana, from Khandesh in the north of Bombay. Etymologically the term inscription (i7riypa4) would include much more than is commonly meant by it. It would include words engraved on rings, or stamped on coins,' vases, lamps, See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

Gaertringen, I.G. xii. 1o65-1441. of the material, the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Sometimes duplicates are ordered to be set up in various places; and, in cases of treaties, arbitrations and other international documents, copies were always set up by each city concerned. Accordingly documents like the Marmor Ancyranum and the Edict of See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Olympia, 1-43); a similar bronze treaty from the See also:

• LOCRI

93) was done by others with less See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

149; I.G. suppl. to vol. i. p. 41). The Greeks found no inconvenience, as we should, in the bulkiness of inscriptions as a means of keeping public records. On the contrary they made every temple a See also:

• MUNIMENT

§ 75). But the Greek historians also were not slow to recognize their importance. See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

In later Greece, when men's thoughts were thrown back upon the past, See also:

• REGULAR

And it was the work of one great See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

German, French, See also:

• BRITISH

Of this work six complete volumes and parts of others have appeared (by 1906) representing See also:

• ATTICA

Volksbeschlusse (189o). See also:

• DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV (1808—1884)

(LG. i. 37; Kohler Urkunden and Untersuchungen zur Geschichte See also:

• DES

(4-licks 2, 51) ; between Athens and See also:

• LEONTINI (mod. Lentini)

Dial. Inschr. 5039-5041, 5075). See also:

• EGGER

43); and many others. Akin to these are decrees in honour of See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

Sel. 5). Letters from Roman emperors are commoner still; such as Dittenberger, Syll.2 350, 356, 373, 384-388, 404. The internal See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

Inscr. 2, and the irrs riptions from Ephesus, Gk. Ins( r. in Brit. illus. pt. iii. § 2). See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

Inscr. in the Brit. Mus. 518). Documents earlier than the Persian War are not very frequent; but after that period the stream of Greek inscriptions goes on, generally increasing in See also:

• VOLUME

G. 5127A) ; Dittenberger, (Incr. or. Gr. 54) reciting the achievements of Ptolemy III. Euergetes I. Offerings in temples (hvaBijuara) are often of great historical value, e.g. the dedications on the columns of Croesus at Ephesus mentioned above; See also:

• GELO

(I) Institution of festivals, with elaborate 1"scrip- See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

(3) Curious See also:

• CALENDAR

1684-2342; for enfranchisement-inscriptions of various kinds, Dareste, &c., Inscr. See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

The dedications and honorary inscriptions relating to the See also:

• EPHEBI (Gr. i ri, and On, i.e. " those who have reached puberty ")

(1889); they yield a good deal of information about the Attic domes, and some of them are of high importance, e.g. the epitaph on the slain in the year 458 B.C. (Dittenberger, Syll.2 9), and on those who See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

Bildhauer, 1885). In most cases the artists are unknown to fame. Among the exceptions are the names of See also:

• PYTHAGORAS
• PYTHAGORAS (6th century B.C.)

Daalekte (1882-1889), and O. Hoffman, Die griech. Dialekte (1891-1898). The See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

Much of the evidence is of a kind difficult to appreciate from a mere description. Yet—besides the 13ouarpodsrt&bv writing of many early documents—we may mention the contrast between the stiff, angular characters which prevailed before 500 or 450 B.C. and the graceful yet simple forms of the Periclean age. This development was part of the general See also:

• MOVEMENT

The inscriptions of Hadrian's time show a tendency to eclectic See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

Some of Studs of the orators and historians, such as Cicero, See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Modern See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

Aside, provinciaruni Europae Graecarunoi, Illyrici (1873; with Supplements and Index, 1889–19o2); vol. iv., Inscr. parietariae Pompeianae Herculanenses Stabianae (the scratched and painted inscriptions chiefly of See also:

• POMPEII

[vase, See also:

• LUCERNE
• LUCERNE (Ger. Luzern; Ital. Lucerne)
• LUCERNE, LAKE OF
• LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK

(1888); the Inscriptions chretiennes de la Gaule of Le Blant (2 vols., Paris, 1857–1865; new edition, 1892) ; the Altchristliche Inschriften der Rheinlande of Kraus (18go); the Christliche Inschriften der Schweiz vain IV.-IX. Jahrhundert of Egli (1895); and the Inscr. Hispaniae Christianae and Inscr. Britanniae Christianae of Hubner (Berlin, 1871, 1876). As splendidly illustrated works on the Latin inscriptions of some districts See also:

• ALPHONSE, COUNT OF TOULOUSE AND OF POITIERS (I220-1271)

II. Information regarding the forms of letters used on Roman inscriptions will be found under the articles LATIN LANGUAGE, PALAEOGRAPHY and WRITING (cf. Hubner, Exempla scripturae 3 His works have been published by the French government in several volumes 4t0, (Paris, 1862 sqq.). epigraphicae Latinae, 1845). The forms of the single letters vary not inconsiderably according to the material of the monuments, their age and their origin. Carefully cut letters, especially when on a large scale, naturally differ from those scratched or painted on walls by non-professional hands, or hewn on rocks by soldiers; and small incised (or dotted) letters on metal or See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

For understanding the texts of the inscriptions an accurate knowledge of the system of abbreviations used in them is necessary (see Cagnat, Cours d'epigraphie latine, 3rd ed., 1898). These are almost invariably litterae singulares; that is to say, the initial letter is employed for the entire word (in all its grammatical forms), or if one initial, as belonging to more than one word, is not sufficiently clear, the first two or even the first three letters are employed; rarely more than three. Abbrevia- 1 For other details of numerical notation, fractions, &c., see the manuals of metrology.tions in the true sense of the Word (by dropping some letters at the end) are to be found, in the older period, only at the end of lines, and not frequently. In the later period some instances of them have been observed. The litterae singulares, as Valerius Probus taught, are either generally employed (usus generalis) in all-classes of written documents (and so in literature also), as, for instance, those of the individual names (the praenomina), the names of days and feasts (See also:

• HAT

For the abbreviations of official charges, See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

25 seq.). The indexes to Orelli, Wilmanns, and the volumes of the Corpus may also be consulted. See also:

• TUSCULUM

176); they can be ascribed to the period of the Gracchi. On these ollae, besides the name of the deceased, also for the most part in the nominative, but on the more recent in the genitive, the date of a day, probably that of the death, is noted; here and there See also:

• OBIT (through O. Fr., from Lat. obitus, death, obire, to go down, to die)

1021, with Mommsen's note; Wil. 188). About the same time also the epitaphs more frequently state how long the deceased lived, which was formerly added only on certain occasions (e.g. in the case of a premature death), and mostly in poetical form. The See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

This formula, afterwards so common, is still very rare at the end of the republic, and is usually written in full, while in later times it is employed, both simply and in many varied forms (as dis manibus sacrum, or d. m. et memoriae, d. m. et genio, or memoriae aeternae, paci et quieti, quieti aeternae, somno aeternali and so on; Wil. 246), in thousands of monuments. By similar degrees the titulus sepulcralis adopts many of the elements of the titulus honorarius (the indication of the cursus honorum, of the military charges, &c., as e.g. in the inscription of Cn. See also:

• CALPURNIUS, TITUS

Testaments (like those of Dasumius of the year A.D. 109.—C.I.L. Vi. 10229; Wil. 314; and T. Flavius Syntrophus—C.I.L. vi. 10239; Henz. 7321; Wil. 313), or parts of them (like that on the tomb of a See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

283; See also:

• FOWLER, CHARLES (1792-1867)
• FOWLER, EDWARD (1632-1714)
• FOWLER, JOHN (1826-1864)
• FOWLER, SIR JOHN (1817-1898)
• FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 156o-1614)

13),—and relating to the See also:

• ANNUAL

Saeturni pocolom, Lavernai pocolom). The proper form of the dedication, the simple See also:

• DATIVE (Lat. dativus, giving or given, from dare, to give)

1153; Henz. 5789; Wil. 1775). But at an early date the verb donum dare and some synonyms (like donum portare, ferre, mancupio dare, parare) were felt to be insufficient to express the dedicator's good-will and his sense of the See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

The dative case and this formula, completely or partially employed (for merito alone is also used, as C.I.L. i. 562, cf. Ephem. epigr. ii. 353, Wil. 29), remained in See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

1772), the solemn formula of the dedicatory inscriptions of the later period, v. s. I. m. or v. s. 1. 1. m., arose. To the same effect, and of equally ancient origin with the solemn words dare and donum dare, the word sacrum (or other forms of it, as sacra [ara]), conjoined with the name of a divinity in the dative, indicates a gift to it (e.g. C.LL. i. 814; Wil. 32; C.LL. i. 1200-1201; Wit. 33 a b); the same form is to be found also in the later period (e.g. C.I.L. 1124; Henz.

5624-5637), and gave the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

142) vow a tenth part of their See also:

• BOOTY (apparently influenced by " boot," O. Eng. bot, ad-vantage or profit, through an adaptation from an earlier form cognate with Ger. Beute and Fr. butin)

5684); what slaves had promised they fulfil as freedmen (C.LL. 1233, servos vovit See also:

• LIBER

Not exactly dedicatory, but only mentioning the origin of the gift, are the inscriptions on the pedestals of offerings (hva9a tiara, donaria) out of the booty, like those of M. Claudius See also:

• MARCELLUS

Mummius, already mentioned, two only are preserved in their original poetical form, the Roman in Saturnian verses of a carmen triumphale (C.I.L. i. 541; Orel. 563; Wil. 27 a) and that found at Reate in dactylic hexameters (C.I.L. i. 542; Wil. 27 b); the rest of them contain only the name of the dedicant and the dative of the community to which they were destined (C.I.L. i. and Wil. l.c.). Of a peculiar form is the very ancient inscription on a bronze tablet, now at Munich, probably from Rome, where two aidiles, whose names are given at the beginning as in the other donaria, " vicesma(m) parti(m) or [ex] vicesma parti Apolones (that is, Apollinis) dederi (that is, dedere) " (C.LL. i. 187; Orel. 1433). Many, but not substantial, varieties arise, when old offerings are restored (e.g. C.I.L. i. 638, 632 =Orel.

2135, and \Vii. 48; C.I.L. i. 803; Henz. 5669, 6122); or the source of the offering (e.g. de stipe, C.I.L. i. 1105; Henz. 5633 a; ex reditu pecuniae, ex patrimonio suo, ex ludis, de munere gladiatorio, and so on) ; or the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

110; Orel. 2135; \Vil. 48; decurionum decreto, &c.), and the magistrates or private persons executing or controlling the work, the place where and the time when it was erected, are added. On all these details the indexes, especially that of Wil. (ii. 675), give further information. The objects themselves which are offered or erected begin to be named only in the later period just as in the tituli operum ublicorum (" See also:

• BASIM

11o9; Wil. 54); in the later period this custom becomes more frequent. It is hardly necessary to observe that all kinds of offerings have very frequently also been adorned with poetry; these carmina dedicatoria are given by Buecheler, Anthologia Latina, ii.; cf. Wil. 142-151. 3. Statues to mortals, whether living or after their death (but not on their tombs), with honorary inscriptions (tituli honorarii), were introduced into the Roman republic after the Greek model and only at a comparatively late date. One of the oldest inscriptions of this class comes from Greek See also:

• SOIL

(193 B.C.); the same form (in the accusative) appears in other (Latin or Latin and Greek) inscriptions from Greece (C.I.L. i. 596=iii. 532; Wil. 1103; C.I.L. iii. 365, 7240; compare also C.I.L. i. 587, 588; Orel. 3036). The noble house of the Scipios introduced the use of poetical elogia in the ancient form of the carmina triumphalia in Saturnian verses (from the 6th century in elegiac distichs). They were added to the short tituli, painted only with minium on the sarcophagi, giving the name of the deceased (in the nominative) and his curulian offices (exclusively), which were copied perhaps from the well-known imagines preserved in the See also:

• ATRIUM (either from ater, black, referring to the blackening of the walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek aiOpeov, open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of building is supposed to have originated)

They hold, by their contents, an intermediate place between the sepulchral inscriptions, to which they belong properly, and the honorary ones, and therefore are rightly styled elogia. What the Scipios did thus privately for themselves was in other cases done publicly at a period nearly as early. The first instance preserved of such a usage, of which Pliny the elder speaks (Hist. nat. xxxiv. § 17 sq.), is the celebrated columna rostrata of C. See also:

• DUILIUS (or DuELLTUS), GAIUS

1303, 1304; \Vii. 610), or of statues by their descendants, as those belonging to a See also:

• SACRARIUM

1278; i. 640=vi. 1323, vi. 1321, 1322, where T. Quincti seems to be the nominative), and in See also:

• DIVERS

1272, 1308, 1315, 1318 ; Wil. 625, 626, 627, 632), and other towns followed his example (so Pompeii, C.I.L. i. xx., xxii.=Wi1. 622, 623; See also:

• LAVINIUM

3827) and See also:

• LUNA (mod. Luni)
• LUNA, ALVARO DE (d. 1453)

Within the Greek provinces also, at the same period, this form is adopted (C.LL. i. 595 =iii. 531; Henz. 5294; Wil. 1104). Similar dedications were offered to See also:

• POMPEY

1106). They are succeeded by the statues raised to See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

653), See also:

• MARIUS, GAIUS (r55–86 B.c.)

5448; Wil. 635) and that of Trajan (C.I.L. vi. 1377; Henz. 5478; Wil. 636; vi. 1549; Henz. 5477; Wil. 639; iv. 1549; Orel. 1386; Wil. 637; C.I.L. 1565, 1566; Wil.

64o); and this custom lasted to a late period (C.I.L. vi. 1599; Henz. 3574; Wil. 638), as is shown by the statues of See also:

• SYMMACHUS

5593; Wil. 645, 645a), and many other eminent men down to See also:

• STILICHO, FLAVIUS (?-4o8)

6), is added at the end, as in an inscription of Mytilene belonging to the consul of the year 723 A.u.c., i.e. 31 B.C. (C.LL. iii. 455; Orel. 4111; Wil. 1104 b); the same, abbreviated (h.c.), occurs on an inscription of about the same age from See also:

• CIRTA (mod. Constantine, q.v.)

10,044-10,210. He who erects a temple or a public building, or constructs a road, a See also:

• BRIDGE

With the same formula the See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

600=vi. 1305; Orel. 50; Wil. ,788); it was restored by the consuls of the year 733 (21 B.C.).' On privately erected buildings the founder after his name puts a simple fecit (as also on sepulchral inscriptions); so, possibly, did Pompey; when he dedicated his theatre as a temple of See also:

• VENUS

Of municipal examples it will be sufficient to name those of the majestic temple of Cora (C.LL. i. 1149-1150; Wil. 722, 723), of Ferentinum, with the measurements of the foundation (C.I.L. i. 1161-1163; Wil. 708), of the walls and towers at See also:

• AECLANUM

730, 1899-1901). At See also:

• ALETRIUM (mod. Alatri)

161, 162; Wil. 804). As in some of the already-mentioned inscriptions of public works the measurements of the work to which they refer (especially, as may be supposed, in the case of works of great extent, such as walls of towns or lines of fortification, like the walls of Hadrian and Antoninus See also:

• PIUS

In the same brief style are conceived the other not very frequent republican miliaria found in Italy (C.I.L. i. 535-537; Henz. 5348; Wit. 567; C.I.L. i. 540; Henz. 5350, 6226; Wit. 807; C.I.L. i. 558, 559; Henz. 5353; Wil. 808; CLL. i. 561; Henz. 5180; Wil.

811; C.I.L. i. 633; Wil. 812) down to the time of Augustus (C.LL. x. 6895, 6897, 6899; Wil. 813), and also the even more rare specimens from the provinces (from Asia i. 557--iii. 479, Wil. 826, C.I.L. i. 622 =iii. 462, Wil. 827;. from Spain—C.I.L. i. 1484-1486=ii.

4920-4925, 4956, Wil. 828, 829). Augustus inscribed on each milestone on his road across Spain " a Baete et Jano Augusto ad Oceanum" (e.g. C.I.L. ii. 4701; Wil. 832), Claudius on those of a road in Upper Italy founded by his father See also:

• DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS
• DRUSUS, NERO1 CLAUDIUS (38–9 B.C.)

The large dedicatory inscriptions of the celebrated aqueducts2 of Rome (as the Aquae Marcia, Tepula and Julia, C.I.L. vi. 1244-1246, Orel. 51-53, Wil. 765; the See also:

• VIRGO (" the Virgin ")

775-779). The other Italian and provincial varieties cannot be specified here. Of boundary-stones, or cippi terminales, some very ancient specimens have been preserved. To the age preceding the Second Punic War belong two, found at See also:

• VENUSIA (mod. Venosa, q.v.)

From the age of Sulla we still have various boundary-stones giving the line of demarcation between different communities (between Fanum and Pisaurum—C.I.L. i. 583, Orel. 570, Wit. 861; between See also:

• ATESTE (mod. Este, q.v.)

710, 811; Wil. 843, 844), while others, of the consuls of the year A.D. 4 (C.I.L. vi. 1263; Orel. g260; Wil. 85h,), of Augustus (C.I.L. vi. 1265; Henz. 6455; Wil. 52), &c., show the boundary between the ager publicus and privatus. With similar objects boundary-stones were erected by the emperors, or, under their authority, by magistrates, mostly military, in the rest of Italy also (as in See also:

• CAPUA (anc. Casilinum;, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 7 M. W. by rail from the town oI Caserta. Pop. (1901) 14
• CAPUA (mod. S. Maria di Capua Vetere)

858; at Pompeii—C.I.L. x. 1018, Wil. 864) and in the provinces (as in Syria—C.LL. iii. 183; and Macedonia—C.I.L. iii. 594; in See also:

• DALMATIA (Ger. Dalmatien; Ital. Dalmazia; Serbo-Croatian, Dalmacija)

46, &c.). Private grounds (pedaturae) were unfrequently marked off by terminal cippi. To this class of tituli must be added also the curious inscriptions incised upon the steps of Roman circuses, theatres and amphitheatres (see Hubner, Annali dell' Institute archeologico, vol. xxviii., 1856, p. 52 sq., and vol. xxxi., 1859, p. 122 sq.), as, for instance, upon those of the Coliseo at Rome (C.I.L. vi., 1796, 1-37; compare R. Lanciani, Bullettino archeologico municipale, 1881). 4. We now come to the last class of tituli, viz. those which in the Corpus are arranged, at the end of each volume, under the head of Instrumentum. By this very comprehensive term are designated objects which vary greatly among themselves, but which are of such a character as not to fall within any of the classes of tituli described before, or the class of the instrumenta in the proper sense of that word, —the laws, &c. The tituli of the instrumentum embrace movable objects, destined for public and private use, and illustrate almost every side of the life of the ancient Romans. As systematic treatment of them is hardly possible, a simple enumeration only of their different classes can be given, without citing special examples. The first See also:

• SPECIES

The gold and silver plate used in the best Roman houses was also always marked with a note of its weight,—as is seen, for instance, on the different objects belonging to the See also:

• HILDESHEIM

24). The other circular tesserae (the so-called tesserae theatrales) of ivory or bone, with emblems and short inscriptions, partly Greek and Latin, used to be attributed to the ludi scaenici (see Henzen, Annali dell' Institute archeologico, vol. xx., 1848, p. 2i3 sq., and vol. xxii., 1850, p. 357 sq.) and to other ludi; but this account has been questioned (Huelsen, Bullett. dell' Institute, 1896, p. 227). A third species is that of inscriptions carved, inscribed, painted or stamped upon various materials, raw or manufactured, for trade or See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

626), and the similar one on the tropaea See also:

• AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM (1772-1841)

220 sq.; A. Way, Archaeological See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

144, 318, iv. 209, vii. 346). Of the highest interest are the manifold productions of the Roman See also:

• TILE (0. Eng. tigel, Fr. tuile, connected with Lat. tegula)

18. On Roman lamps and their inscriptions the accurate catalogue of the Vienna collection by Kenner (" DieantikenThonlampen•des K. K. Milnz-andAntiken-Cabinetes and der K. K. Ambraser Sammlung," in the Archie fiir Kunde osterreichischer Geschichtsquellen, vol. xx., Vienna, 1858) may be consulted with See also:

• ADVANTAGE

See also:

• AREZZO (anc. Arretium)

141; See also:

• NEI

1. Among the earliest occasions for committing to writing agreements, which may be supposed to have been originally verbal only, must certainly be reckoned international transactions (leges foederis or foedera). At the head of the prose records written in the Latin language we find the treaties of alliance of Tullus Hostilius with the See also:

• SABINI

153 sq.); and by the foedus Ardeatinum of 310 (444 B.c.) mentioned by Livy (iv. 7). Of all these documents nothing has been preserved in an authentic form, save some few words quoted from them by the ancient grammarians. Of one foedus only is there a fragment still in existence, relating to the Oscan civitas libera Bantia (C.I.L. i. 197) ; it contains the clausula of the foedus, which was written in Latin and in Oscan (see Aroma). On account of this peculiar circumstance, the document gave occasion to Klenze, and afterwards to Momnisen, to resume (for the sake of Roman jurisprudence, in the first instance) inquiry into the Oscan and other Italian dialects. Some other Roman foedera are preserved only in Greek, e.g. that with the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

8), are mentioned in an abridged form only, or given in that of a senatus consultum, to which they must formally be ascribed. Amongst the foedera may be reckoned also the curious See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

7000; Wil. 2849); the tabula of the pagus Gurzensium in Africa, delivering the patronate to L. Domitius See also:

• AHENOBARBUS (" brazen-bearded ")

Silius Aviola, dating from A.D. 27 to 28, all found at See also:

• BRESCIA
• BRESCIA (anc. Brixia)

2960; Wil. 2854); that of the Segisamonenses, in Spain, of A.D. 239, now in the museum at See also:

• BURGOS

Hardly inferior in antiquity, and of See also:

• SUPERIOR

207-211) may be left out of account here. In the imperial age, laws in general were replaced by senalus consulta or by imperial decrees. It was also in the form of a senatus consultum that the leges de imperio, on the accession of the emperors, seem to have been promulgated. An example of such a law, preserved in part on a bronze tablet found at Rome, is the lex de imperio Vespasiani (C.I.L. vi. 930; Orel. i. 567). There is, besides, one special category of imperial constitutions which continued to be named leges, viz. the constitutions given by the emperors to the divers classes of civitates, based upon the ancient traditional rules of government applied to Rome itself as well as to the coloniae and municipia. Of this sort of leges some very valuable specimens have come from Spanish soil, viz. the lex coloniae Juliae Genetivae Urbanorum sive Ursonis (now See also:

• OSUNA
• OSUNA, PEDRO TELLEZ GIRON

363 sq.) ; the lex metalli Vipascensis, given, with all probability, by one of the three Flavii, as a constitution to a See also:

• MINING

Graec. 2905, 2908, ii. 2485, 2737; Le Bas and Waddington iii. 195-I08; Annali dell' Institute, vol. xix. 1847, p. 113; Ephem. epigr. iv. 213 sq.), and those relating to the Jews, dating from 615, 621 and 710 (139, 133 and 44 B.c.) (Josephus, Ant. xiii. 9. 2, xiv. 8. 5 and 10. 9).

The two oldest senatus consulta written in Latin are also preserved in a more or less complete form only by ancient authors; they are the sc. de philosophis et rhetoribus of 593 (161 B.c.) (Gellius, Noct. Att. xv. ii. 1) and that de hastis Martiis of 655 (99 B.C.) (Gellius iv. 6. 2). The only one belonging to the oldest period preserved in the original Latin form, of which only a part exists, together with the Greek translation, is the sc. Lutatianum, relating to See also:

• ASCLEPIADES

911-912; Henz. 5381-5282) ; the two sc. Hosidiangm and Volusianum, containing regulations for the demolition and rebuilding of houses in Rome, incised on the same bronze plate, found at See also:

• HERCULANEUM

156 sq.). There exists, besides, a chapter of a sc., relating to the collegia, inserted in the decree of a collegium at See also:

• LANUVIUM (more frequently Lanivium in imperial times, mod. Civita Lavinia)

6086; Wil. 319); and the decretum Tergestinum, belonging to the time of Antoninus Pius (CLL. v. 532; Henz. 7167; Wil. 693). There are, however, more than thirty others preserved, some of them, such as those from Naples, written in the Greek language. Of the third speciality, the decreta collegiorum, only the lex collegii aquae of the 1st century (Marini, Atti de' fratelli arvali, p. 7o; Rudorif and Mommsen, Zeitschrift fiir Rechtsgeschichte, vol. xv., 185o, pp. 203, 345 sq.), and the lex collegii Aesculapii et Hygiae, of 153 (C.I.L. vi. 10,234; Orel. 2417; Wil. 320) need be mentioned here; many more exist.

One of them, the lex collegii Jovis Cerneni, dating from A.D. 167, found at Alburnus See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

588). Then follow the famous epistula consulum (falsely styled senatus consullum) ad Teuranos de bacchanalibus, dated 568 (186 B.C.) (C.I.L. i. 196); the See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

Such are the decree of Augustus on the aqueduct of See also:

• VENAFRUM

411; Orel. 3119) ; the decrees of See also:

• COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS (161-192)

2294-2306). Local, provincial or municipal calendaria have likewise been found (as the feriale Cumanum, C.I.L. i. part ii. p. 229, and the Capuanum, C.I.L. x. 3792). Many other large monumental inscriptions bear some relation, more or less strict, to sacred or public preserved in divers copies more or less complete, in Latin and Greek (C.I.L. iii. 801 sq.; compare Ephem. epigr. iv. ,8o, and, as similar monuments, the lex See also:

• PORTUS

2843), that of See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Along with the official calendar exhibited on the walls from Claudius down to Diocletian. Though not a decree, yet as a of the See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

4957) ; that of C. Helvidius See also:

• PRISCUS

2841); the decree of L. Novius See also:

• RUFUS, GAIUS VALGIUS
• RUFUS, LUCIUS VARIUS (c 74—14 B.c.)

696a). To these must be added the tabulae alimentariae, relating to the well-known See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

266; \Vil. too). These documents form a most instructive class of instrumenta. 5. Many documents, as may be supposed, were connected with religious worship, public and private. The oldest lox templi, which continued in force until a comparatively late period, was the regulation given by Scrvius Tullius to the temple of Diana on the Aventine, after the conclusion of the federal pact with the Latini, noticed above. Mention is made of this ancient law as still in force in two later documents of a similar character, viz. the dedication of an altar to Augustus by the plebs of Narbo in southern France, of A.D. 764, but existing only, at Narbonne, in a copy, made perhaps in the 2nd century (C.I.L. xii. 4333; Orel. 2489; Wil. 104), and that of an altar of Jupiter, dedicated at Salonae in Dalmatia in A.D. 137, still existing in part at See also:

• PADUA (Lat. Patavium ; Ital. Padova)

2490; Will. 163). Another lox fani still existing is that of a temple of Jupiter Libor at Furfo, a vicus of southern Italy, cf the year 696 (58 B.C.), but copied, in vernacular language, from an older original (C.I.L. i. 6o3; Orel. 2488; Wil. 105; compare Jordan in Hermes, vol. vii., 1872, pp. 20I sq.). The lists of objects belonging to some sanctuaries or to the ornaments of statues are curious, such as those of the Diana Nemorensis at Nemi (Henz. Hermes, vol. vi., 1871, pp. 8 sq.), and of a statue of See also:

• ISIS (Egyptian Ese)

2510, Wil. 210), and two synopses from a temple at Cirta in Africa (Wil. 2736, 2737). The sortes given by divinities may also be mentioned (see C.I.L, i. 267 sq.; Wil. 2822). To a temple also, though in itself of a See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

74, 205 sq.). Documents of the same kind, as, for example, the See also:

• ALBUM (Lat. albus, white)

Meconius See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

5042), which seems to be a formulary. Other documents relating to private affairs exist in their original form, written on tabellae ceratae. Those found together in a mining district of Dacia have been arranged and explained by Mommsen and Zangemeister (C.I.L. iii. 291 sq., with facsimiles); those found at Pompeii in 1875, containing receipts of the banker L. See also:

• CAECILIUS

Only a few of them are incised on stone (as that to the Dea Ataecina from Spain, 462); for the most part they are written, in cursive letters, or in very debased capitals, on small bronze or lead tablets (so C.I.L. i. 818, 819; Henz. 6114, 6115; Wil. 2747, 2748), to be laid in the tombs of the " defixi," or deposited in the sanctuaries of some divinity. 7. Many of the private documents just alluded to have not a monumental character similar to that of the other inscriptions in the wider sense of the word, as they are written on materials not very durable, such as wood and lead—in the majority of cases, in cursive characters; but, -nevertheless, they cannot be classed as literature. As a last species, therefore, of instrumenta, there remain some documents, public and private, which similarly lack the strict the walls of the buildings of ancient towns, like Pompeii, where, as INSECTIVORA, an order of non-volant placental mammals was to be expected, most of them have been preserved, those from of small size, with a dentition adapted to an See also:

• INSECT