XXX . 387 378 38o Orhus 350 342 342 taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

Breasted, See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

From the Earliest Times to the Moslem See also:

• CONQUEST

In the See also:

• FAYUM

The See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

Petrie considers that one of the kings buried at See also:

• ABYDOS

Of the eight kings of the Ist Dynasty, three—the fifth, See also:

• SIXTH

Snefru also set up a tablet at Wadi Maghara in Sinai. He built two pyramids, one of them at Medum in steps, the other, probably in the perfected form, at Dahshur, both lying between Memphis and the Fayum. Pyramids did not cease to be built in Egypt till the New Kingdom; but from the end of the IIIrd to the Vlth Dynasty is pre-eminently the time when the royal pyramid in stone was the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

A tablet which describes Cheops as the builder of various shrines about the Great Sphinx has been shown to be a priestly See also:

• FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin fabricare, to construct)

The most active of its kings was the third, named Pepi or Phiops, from whose pyramid at Sakkara the capital, hitherto known as " See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

Its kings were named Menthotp, from Mont, one of the gods of Thebes; others, perhaps sub-kings, were named Enyotf (Antef). They were buried at Thebes, whence the coffins of several were obtained by the early collectors of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

The latter seems to be the origin of the See also:

• SESOSTRIS

Amenemhe II. was buried at Dahshur; he was followed by Senwosri II., whose pyramid is at Illahun at the mouth of the. Fayum. In his reign were executed the fine paintings in the tomb of Khnemhotp at Beni Hasan, which include a remarkable See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

The XIIth Dynasty numbered eight rulers and lasted for 213 years. Great as it was, it created no empire outside the Nile valley, and its most imposing monument, which according to the testimony of the ancients rivalled the pyramids, is now represented by a vast stratum of chips. The history of the following period down to the rise of the New Empire is very obscure. Manetho gives us the XIIIth (Dios-polite) Dynasty, the XIVth (Xoite from Xois in Lower Egypt), the XVth and XVIth (Hyksos) and the XVIIth (Diospolite), but his names are lost except for the Hyksos kings. The Abydos tablet ignores all between the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties. The Turin Papyrus preserves many names on its shattered fragments, and the monuments are for ever adding to the list, but it is difficult to assign them accurately to their places. The Hyksos names can in some cases be recognized by their See also:

• FOREIGN

Several of the Theban kings named Antef (Enyotf) must be placed here rather than in the Xlth Dynasty. A See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

The glorious XVIIIth Dynasty seems Dynasty, to have been closely related to the XVIIth. Its first task was to crush the Hyksos power in the north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

It had become essentially a military state. The whole of the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

After her husband's death the ambitious Hatshepsut assumed the full See also:

• REGAL

Not long after her death there was a violent reaction. See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

In a series i The history of Hatshepsut has been very obscure, and the mutilations of her cartouches have been variously accounted for. Recent discoveries by M. Legrain at Karnak and Prof. Petrie at Sinai have limited the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

He set up a tablet by the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

The kings he sacrificed to Ammon and hanged six bodies on the walls, while the seventh was carried south to Napata and there exposed as a terror to the Ethiopians. Amenophis reigned twenty-six years and left his throne to his son Tethmosis IV., who is best remembered by a granite tablet recording his clearance of the Great Sphinx. He also warred in See also:

• NORTHERN

His palace lay farther south on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

The confiscated revenues of Ammon and the tribute from Syria and Cush provided ample means for adorning Ekhaton (Akhetaton), " the horizon of Aton," the new capital, and for richly rewarding those who adopted the Aton teaching fervently. But meanwhile the political needs of the empire were neglected; the dangers which threatened it at the end of the reign of Amenophis III. were never properly met; the dynasts in Syria were at war amongst themselves, intriguing with the great Hittite advance and with the Khabiri invaders. Those who relied on Pharaoh and remained loyal as their fathers had done sent letter after letter appealing for aid against their foes. But though a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

At length a general named Harmahib, who had served under Akhenaton,came to the throne as a whole-hearted supporter of the old See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Seti's temple at Abydos and his galleried tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings stand out as the most splendid examples of their kind in design and in decoration. Rameses II. succeeded at an early age Rameses and reigned sixty-seven years, during which he finished much that was begun by Seti and filled all Egypt and Nubia with his own monuments, some of them beauti- ful, but most, necessarily entrusted to inferior workmen, of coarse See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

The military spirit awakened in the struggle with the Hyksos had again departed from the Egyptian nation; mercenaries from the Sudan, from Libya and from the northern nations supplied the armies, while foreigners settled in the rich lands of the Delta and harried the coasts. It was a time too when the movements of the nations that so frequently occurred in the ancient world were about to be particularly active. Mineptah, c. 1225 B.C., succeeding his father Rameses II., had to fight many battles for the preservation of. his kingdom and empire. Apparently most of the fighting was finished by the fifth year of his reign; in his mortuary temple at Thebes he set up a stela of that date recording a great victory over the Libyan immigrants and invaders, which rendered the much harried land of Egypt safe. The last lines picture this condition with the crushing of the surrounding tribes. Libya was wasted, the Hittites pacified, See also:

• CANAAN, CANAANITES

It may be questioned whether it was due to a See also:

• WAVE

The latter now comprised Peleset (the Cretans, ancestors of the See also:

• PHILISTINES

His palace was at Medinet Habu on the west bank of Thebes in the south quarter; and here he built a great temple to Ammon, adorned with scenes from his victories and richly provided with divine offerings. Although Egypt probably was prosperous on the whole, there was undoubtedly great See also:

• DISTRESS

From this period dates a remarkable papyrus containing the See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Sheshonk (Shishak) I., the founder of the dynasty, c. 950 B.C., seems to have fixed his residence at See also:

• BUBASTIS

Heracleopolis Magna, however, with its See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

Notwithstanding, the Assyrian king entrusted the government and collection of tribute to the native chiefs; twenty princes in all are enumerated in the records, including one Assyrian to hold the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

See also:

• LYDIA

Thebes and Ammon and the traditions of the Empire savoured too much now of the Ethiopian; the priests oft the Memphite and Deltaic dynasty thereupon turned deliberately ' This, it may be remarked, is the time vaguely represented by the Dodecarchy of Herodotus.for their See also:

• MODELS

Herodotus, however, describes his reign as exceedingly prosperous. The mercenary troops at Elephantine mutinied and attempted to desert to Ethiopia, but were brought back and punished. Later, however, a disastrous expedition sent to aid the Libyans against the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

The annual tribute imposed on the satrapy of Egypt and Cyrene was heavy, but it was probably raised with ease. The canal from the Nile to the Red Sea was completed or repaired, and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Those from the former locality show that a colony of See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

The former came to the throne when a Persian invasion was imminent, 378 B.C. Hakor had already formed a powerful army, largely composed of Greek mercenaries. This army Nekhtharheb entrusted to the Athenian See also:

• CHABRIAS (4th century B.C.)

Agesilaus defeated the rival pretender and left Nekhtnebf established on the throne. But the opportunity of a decisive blow against Persia was lost. The new king, Artaxerxes III. Ochus, determined to reduce Egypt. A first expedition was defeated by the Greek mercenaries of Nekhtnebf, but a second, commanded by Ochus himself, subdued Egypt with no further resistance than that of the Greek garrison of Pelusium. Nekhtnebf, instead of endeavouring to relieve them, retreated to Memphis and fled thence to Ethiopia, 340 (?) B.C. Thus miserably fell the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

See J. H. Breasted, A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest (New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

See also:

• NEWBERRY, JOHN STRONG (1822-1892)

A granite gateway to the temple of See also:

• KHNUM

The population of Egypt in the time of Ptolemy I. is put at 7,000,000 by Diodorus, who also says that it was greater then than it ever was before; at the end of the dynasty, in his own day, it was not much less though somewhat diminished. Civil wars and revolts must have greatly injured both Upper and Lower Egypt. It is remarkable that, while the See also:

• BUILDING

But no attempt was made to hold Ethiopia. In succeeding reigns much trouble was caused by jealousies and quarrels between the Greeks and the Jews, to whom Augustus had granted privileges as valuable as those accorded to the Greeks. Aiming at the spice trade, Aelius Gallus, the second prefect of Egypt under Augustus, had made an unsuccessful expedition to conquer Arabia See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

The province of Africa was now of equal importance with Egypt for the grain supply of the capital. Avidius See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

It presents some features of great antiquity, and, unlike all others, has the truly popular character of being written in the three dialects of the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

The province was, however, unsettled, and the conquest of Palmyra was followed in the same year by the suppression of a revolt in Egypt (A.D. 273). See also:

• PROBUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• PROBUS, MARCUS VALERIUS

303 against the Christians, and those which succeeded it, were rigorously carried out in Egypt, where Paganism was still strong and See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

After being four times expelled by the Arians, and once by the emperor See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

The distinction between religion and politics seemed to be lost, and the government grew weaker and weaker. The system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared. Offices, with new See also:

• BYZANTINE

The decline of Egypt was due to the purely military government of the Romans, and their subsequent alliance with the Greek party of Alexandria, which never represented the country. Under weak emperors, the rest of Egypt was exposed to the inroads of savages, and left to fall into a condition of barbarism. Ecclesiastical disputes tended to alienate both the native population and the Alexandrians. Thus at last the country was merely held by armed force, and the authority of the governor was little recognized beyond the capital, except where garrisons were stationed. There was no military spirit in a population unused to arms, nor any disinclination to be relieved from an arbitrary and persecuting rule. Thus the Moslem conquest was easy. (R. S. P.; F. LL. G.) 2. See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

(I) Moslem Conquest of Egypt.—In accordance with the scheme of universal conquest conceived by the founder of See also:

• ISLAM

Since Alexandria could neither have been stormed nor starved out by the Arabs, his motives for surrendering it, and with it the whole of Egypt, have been variously interpreted, some supposing him to have been secretly a convert to Islam. The notion that the Arab invaders were welcomed and assisted by the Copts, driven to desperation by the persecution of Cyrus, appears to be refuted by the fact that the invaders treated both Copts and Romans with the same ruthlessness; but the dissensions which prevailed in the Christian communities, leading to riots and even civil war in Alexandria and elsewhere, probably weakened resistance to the common enemy. An attempt was made in the year 645 with a force under See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

This dynasty lasted till 1171, when Egypt was again embodied in the Abbasid empire by See also:

• SALADIN (Arab. Sala-ud-din, " Honouring the Faith ") (1138—1193)

Sa'd b. 'Ubadah, 36 (657-658). Mahommed b. Abu Bekr, 37-38 (658). Ashtar Malik b. al-Harith appointed, but never governed). 'Arnr-ibn-el-Ass, 38-43 (658-663). 'Utbah b. Abu Sofian, 43-44 (664-665). 'Utbah b. 'See also:

• AMIR, or AMEER (an Arabic word meaning " commander," from the root amr, " commanding ")

Sa'id b. Yazid b. 'Alqamah, 62-64 (682-684). Abdarrahman b. 'Utbah b. Jandam, 64-65 (684). Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz) b. Merwan, 65-86 (685-705). 'Abdallah b. 'Abd al-Malik, 86-90 (7Q5-7o8). Qurrah b. Sharik al-'Absi, 90-96 (709-714).

'Abd al-Malik b. Rifa'ah al-Fahmi, 96-99 (715-717). Ayyub b. Shurabbil al-Asbabi, 99-101 (717-720). Bishr b. Safwan al-Kalbi, 101-102 (720-721). Hanzalah b. Safwan, 102-105 (721-724). Mahommed b. 'Abd al-Malik, 105 (724). Hurr b. Yusuf, 105–108 (724–727).

IIafs b. al-Walid, 108 (727). 'Abd al-Malik b. Rifa'ah, 109 (727). Walid b. Rifa'ah, Io9-117 (727-735). 'Abd al-Rabman b. Khalid, 117-118 (735). Han?alah b. Safwan, 118-124 (735-742). Hafs b. al-Walid, 124-127 (742-745). See also:

• HASSAN

Ilafs b. al-Walid, 127 (745). Hautharah b. Suhail al-Bahili, 128-131 (745-749). Mughirah b. 'Ubaidallah al-Fazari, 131–132 (749). 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan al-Lakhmi, 132 (750). Salib b. 'Ali, 133 (750-751). Abu 'Aun 'Abdalmalik b. Yazid, 133-136 (751-753). Will b.

'Ali, 136-137 (753-755)—second time. Abu 'Aun, 137-141 (755-758)—second time. Musa b. Ka'b b. 'Uyainah al-Tamimi, 141 (758-759).Mahommed b. al-Ash'See also:

• ATH, or AATII

'Abdallah b. 'Abdarrabman b. Moawiya b. Hudaij, 152-155 (769–772). Mahommed b. Abdarrabman b. Moawiya b. Iludaij, 155 (772). Musa b. 'Ulayy b. Rabah al-Lakhmi, 155-161 (772-778). 'Isa b.

Lugman b. Mahommed al-Jumahi, 161-162 (778). Wadib, 162 (779). Mansur b. Yazid b. Mansur al-Ru'aini, 162 (779). Abu $alib Yabya b. Dawud b. Mamdud, 162-164 (779-780). Salim b. Sawadah al-Tamimi, 164 (780-781). See also:

• IBRAHIM

Salib b. 'Ali, 165-167 (781-784). Musa b. See also:

• MUS

Musa b. 'Isa b. Musa al-'Abbasi, 171-172 (787-789). Maslamah b. Yabya b. Qurrah al-Bajili, 172-173 (789-790). Mahommed b. See also:

• ZUHAIR [Zuhair ibn Abi Sulma Rabi' a ul-Muzani] (6th century)

'Isaal-`Abbasi, 175-176 (790-792). Ibrahim b. Salib, 176 (792). ,glib b. Ibrahim, 176 (792). Abdallah b. al-Musayyib b. Zuhair al Dabbi, 176-177 (792-793)- Isbaq b. Sulaiman b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 177-178 (793-794). Harthamah b. A'yan, 178 (794-795). 'Obaidallah b. al-See also:

• MANDI

Musa b. 'Isaal-'Abbasi, 179-180 (795-796). 'Obaidallah b. al-Mandi, 18o-181 (796-797)—second time. Isma'il b. Salib b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 181–182 (797-798). Ismail b. 'Isa b. Musa al-'Abbasi, 182-183 (798). Laith b. al-Fadl al-Abiwardi, 183-187 (798-803). Abmad b. Isma'il b.

'Ali al-'Abbasi, 187-189 (803-805). 'Obaidallah b. Mahommed b. Ibrahim al-'Abbasi, 189-190 (805-806). Husain b. Jamil, 190-192 (806-808). Malik b. Dalham b. 'Isa al-Kalbi, 192-193 (808). Uasan b. al-Tabtab, 193-194 (808-809). I-latim b. Harthamah b.

A'yan, 194-495 (809-811). Jabir b. al-Ash'ath b. Yabya al-'j a'1, 195-196 (811-812). 'Abbad b. Mahommedb. Hayyan al-Balkhi, 196-198 (812-813). Mottalib b. 'Abdallah b. Malik al-Khuza'i, 198 (813-814). 'Abbas b. Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 198–199 (814).

Mottalib b. 'Abdallah, 199-200 (814-816)--second time. See also:

• SARI

Mahommed b. See also:

• HARUN

Abdallah Kaidar al-$afadi, 217-219 (832-834). Muzaffar b. Kaidar, 219 (834). Musa b. Abi'l-Abbas Thabit al Hanafi, 219-224 (834-839). Malik b. Kaidar al $afadi, 224-226 (839-841). 'Ali b. Yabya abu 1-Hasan al-Armani, 226-228 (841-842). 'Isa b. Mansur al-Rafi'i, 229-233 (843-847). Harthamah b. al-See also:

• NADIR (Arabic nadir, " opposite to," used elliptically for nadir-es-semt, "opposite to the zenith ")

Hatim b. Harthamah, 234 (849). 'Ali b. Yabya, 234-235 (849-850). Ishaq b. Yabya al-Khatlani, 235-236 (850-851). 'Abd al-Wahid b. Yabya b. Mansur, 236-238 (851-852). 'Anbasa b. Ishaq b. Shamir, 238-242 (852-856).

Yazid b. 'Abdallah b. Dinar, 242-253 (856-867). Muzahim b. Khagan al-See also:

• TURKI

Tulun, 254-270 (868-884). Khomaruya b. Abmad, 270-282 (884-896). Jaish h. Khomaruya, 282 (896). Harun b. Khomaruya, 283-292 (896-904). Shaiban b. Abmad, 292 (905). 'Isa b. Mahommed al-Naushari, 292 (905). Mahommed b.

'Ali al-Khalanji, 292-293 (905-906). 'Isa al-Naushari, 293-297 (906-910)—second time. See also:

• TAKIN

Kaighlagh, 311 (923). Takin b. Abdallah, 311-321 (923-933)—third time. Mahommed b. Takin, 321 (933). Fkshidi house. Mahommed b. Tughj al-Ikshid, 321 (933). [Abmad b. Kaighlagh, 321-322 (933-934)]. Mahommed b. Tughj, 323-334 (934-946)--second time.

LUnjur b. al-Ikshid, 334-349 (946-961). 'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 349-355 (961-966). Kafur b. Abdallah al-Ikshidi, 355-357 (966-968). Abu'l-Fawaris Abmad b. 'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 357 (968). (b) Fatimite Caliphs, 357-567 (969-1171). Mo'izz Abu Tamim Ma'add (or li-din See also:

• ALLAH

Mosta'li [Abu'l-Qasim Abroad], 487-495 (1094-1101). Amir [Abu 'Ali Mansur], 495-524 (1101-1130). Manz [Abu'l-Maimun 'Abd al-Majid], 524-544 (1130-1149). Zafir [Abu'l-Mansur Ismaiil], 544-549 (1149-1154). Fa'iz [Abu'I-Qasim 'Isa], 549-555 (1154-1160(). Adid [Abu Mahommed 'Abdallah], 555-567 (1160-1171). (c) Ayyubite Sultans, 564-648 (1169-1250). Malik al-Nasir Salab al-din Yusuf b. Ayyub (SALADIN), 564-589 (1169-1193). Malik al-'Aziz 'Imad al-din See also:

• OTHMAN (c. 574-656)

Malik AL-KAMIL Mahommed, 615-635 (1218-1238). Malik al-'Adil II. Saif al-din Abu Bakr, 635-637 (1238-1240). Malik al-Salih Najm al-din Ayyub, 637-647 (1240-1249). Malik al-Mo'azzam Turanshah, 647-648 (1249-1250). Malik al-Ashraf Musa, 648-65o (1250-1252). (d) Bahri Mamelukes, 648-792 (1250-1390). Shajar al-durr, 643 (1250). Malik al-Mo'izz 'Izz al-din Aibek, 648-655 (1250-1257). Malik al-Mansur Nureddin 'Ali, 655-657 (1257-1259). Malik al-Mozaffar gaif al-din KOTuz, 657-658 (1259-1260). Malik al-Zahir [Rukn al-din (Rukneddin) BIBARS Bundukdari], 658-676 (1260-1277).

Malik al-Sa'id Nasir al-din Barakah See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

$alih 'Imad al-din Ismaiil], 743-746 (1342-1345). Kamil [Saif al-din SuA'See also:

• BAN

(e) Burji Mamelukes, 784-922 (1382-1517). Zahir [Saif al-din Barquq], 784-801 (1382-1398) [interrupted by Hajji, 791-792]. Nasir [Nasir al-din FARAJ], 8o,-8o8 (1398-1405). Mansur ['1zz al-din Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz)], 808-809 (1405-1406). Nasir Faraj (again), 809-815 (1406-1412). Adil Mosta'in (Abbasid caliph), 815 (1412). Mu'ayyad [See also:

• SHEIKH, or SHAIKH

Zahir [Saif al-din Jakmak], 842-857 (1438—1453). Mansur [See also:

• FAKHR

(f) See also:

• TURKISH

'Ali Qilij, 1102 (1691). Dawud, 945 (1538). Ismail, 1107 (1696). 'Ali, 956 (1549). Hosain, 1109 (1697). Mahommed, 961 (I 54). Qara Mahommed or Abmad, Iskandar, 963 (1556). 1111 (1699). 'Ali al-Khadim, 968 (1561). Mahommed Rami, 1116 (1704). Mustafa, 969 (1561). 'All Muslim, 1118 (1706).

'Ali al-Sufi, 971 (1563). Hosain Ketkhuda, 1119 (1707). Mabmud, 973 (1566). Ibrahim Qabudan, 1121 (1709). Sinan, 975 (1567). Khalil, 1122 (1710). Hosain, 980 (1573). Wall, 1123 (1711). Masib, 982 (1575). 'Abidin, 1127 (1715). Hasan al-Khadim, 988 (1580). 'Ali Izmirli, 1129 (1717).

Ibrahim, 991 (1583). Rajab, 1130 (1718). Sinan, 992 (1584). Mahommed al-Bashimi, 1132 Uwais, 994 (1585). (1720). See also:

• HAFIZ

Mahommed Silandar, 1144(1732)• 'Ali al-Silabdar, 1009 (16o,). Othman Halabi, 1146 (1733). Ibrahim, 1012 (1604). Bakir, 1148 (1735). Mahommed al-Kurji, 1013 (1605). Mustafa, 1149 (1736). Hasan, 1014 (1605). Sulaimanb.al-'Azim 1152(1739). Mahommed al-Sufi, 1016 (1607). 'Ali Hakim Oghlu,R153 (1740). Abmadal-Daftardar, 1022 (1613). Yabya, 1154 (1741).

Mustafa Lafakli, 1026 (1617). Mahommed Yedkeshi, 1156 Ja'far, 1027 (1618). (1743)• Mustafa, 1028 (1619). Mahommed Raghib,1158 (1745). Hosain, 1028 (1619). Abmad Kuruzir, 1161 (1748). Mahommed, Io 1 (1622). Sharif 'Abdallah, 1163 (1750). Ibrahim, 1031 (1622). Mahommed Amin, 1166 (1753). Mustafa, 1032 (1623). Mustafa, 1166 (1753).

'Ali, 1032 (1623). 'Ali Hakim Oghiu, 1169 (1756). Mustafa, 1032 (1624). Mahommed Sa'id, 1171 (1758). See also:

• BAIRAM

Abroad al-Kurji, 1042 (1633). I,Iamzah, 1179 (1765). Hosain, 1045 (1636). Mahommed Ragim, 1181 (1767). Mahommed b. Abroad, 1047 Mahommed Urflu, 1182 (1768). (1638). Abroad, 1183 (1770). Mustafa al-Bustanji, 1049 (1639). Qara Khalil, 1184 (1770). Magsud, 1050 (1641). Mustafa Nabulsi, 1188 (1774).

Suyan Bey, 1054 (1644). Ibrahim 'Arabgirli, 1189 (1775). Ayyub, 1055 (1645). Mahommed 'Izzet, 1190 (1776). Mahommed b. Haidar, 1057 Ismail, 1193 (1779). (1647). ' Mahommed Malik, 1195 (1781). Abroad, 1058 (1648). Sharif 'Ali Qassab, 1196 (1782). 'Abd al-Rabman, 1061 (1651). Mahommed Silabdar,,198(1783).

Mahommed al-Silandar, 1062 Mahommed Yeyen, 1200 (1785). (1652). 'Abidin Sharif, 1201 (1787). See also:

• GHAZI (an Arabic word, from ghazd, to fight)

All Jaza'irli or Tarabulsi, 1218 Tahir, 1218 (1803). (1803). Khorshid, 1219 (1804). (g) Hereditary Pashas (later Khedives), from 1220 (from 1805). Mehemet 'Ali, 1220-1264 (1805- Sa'id, 1270-1280 (1854-1863). 1848). Ismail, 1280-1300 (1863-1882). Ibrahim, 1264 (1848). Tewfik, 1300-1309 (1882-1892). 'Abbas I., 1264-1270 (1848-1854). Abbas II., 1309 (1892). (3) Period under Governors sent from the See also:

• METROPOLIS (Gr. piir17Pi mother, srGXis, city)

Sa'd, on whom the third caliph conferred the government of Lower Egypt also, `Amr being recalled, owing to his unwillingness to extort from his subjects as much money as would satisfy the caliph. In the troubles which overtook the Islamic empire with the accession of Othman, Egypt was greatly involved, and it had to be reconquered from the adherents of Ali for Moawiya (Mo'awiyah) by `Amr, who in A.H. 38 was rewarded for his services by being reinstated as governor, with the right to appropriate the surplus revenue instead of sending it as tribute to the metropolis. In the confusion which followed on the death of the Omayyad caliph Yazid the Egyptian Moslems declared themselves for Abdallah b. Zobair, but their leader was defeated in a battle near See also:

• AIN

This was at the rate of a dinar per feddan, of which the proceeds were used in the first place for the pay of the troops and their families, with about half the amount in kind for the rations of the army. The See also:

• PROCESS

The See also:

• TREASURY

The Abbasid period was marked at its commencement by the erection of a new capital to the north of Fostat, bearing the name `Askar or " camp." Apparently at this time the practice of farming the taxes began, which naturally led to even greater extortion than before; and a fresh rising of the Copts is recorded for the fourth year of Abbasid rule. Governors, as will be seen from the list, were frequently changed. The three officials of importance whose nomination is mentioned by the historians in addition to that of the governor were the commander of the bodyguard, the minister of finance and the judge. Towards the beginning of the 3rd Islamic century the practice of giving Egypt in See also:

• FIEF

The presence of Turks in Egypt is attested by documents as early as 808. While the governor Turkish was appointed by the feudal lord, the finance minister governors continued to be appointed by the caliph. On the appointed. death of Ashnas in 844 Egypt was given in fief to another Turkish general Itakh, but in 85o this person fell out of favour, and the fief was transferred to Montasir, son of the caliph Motawakkil. In 856 it was transferred from him to the vizier Fath b. Khagan, who for the first time appointed a Turkish governor. The chief places in the state were also filled with Turks. The period between the rise of the Abbasids and the quasi-independent dynasties of Egypt was marked by much religious persecution, occasioned by the fanaticism of some of the caliphs, the victims being generally Moslem sectarians. (For Egypt under Motawakkil see CALIPHATE, § c. See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

Ahmad b. Tulun spent some of his early life in See also:

• TARSUS (mod. Tersous)

He appears to have invented the fiction which afterwards was repeatedly employed, by which the money spent on mosque-building was supposed to have been furnished by discoveries of buried treasure. He was succeeded by his son Khomaruya, then twenty years of age, who immediately after his accession had to See also:

• DEAL

Fostat was taken by Mahommed b. 8olaiman after very slight resistance, at the beginning of 905, and after the infliction of severe See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

Tughj was the founder of the Ikshidi dynasty, so called from the title Ikshid, conferred on him at his See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

The I3amdanid Saif addaula shortly after this assumed the governorship of See also:

• ALEPPO (native Haleb)

Before his arrival the administration of affairs had again been committed to Ibn Furat, who, on See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

Damascus was taken by the Carmathians, and the name of the Abbasid caliph substituted for that of Mo'izz in public worship. See also:

• HASA, EL (Ahsa, Al Hasa)

This vizier had the astuteness to see the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

It is observable that some of those with which Hakim is credited are also ascribed to Ibn Tulun and the Ikshid (Mahommed b. Tughj). He is perhaps best remembered by his destruction of the church of the See also:

• HOLY

Mirdas, succeeded in establishing a dynasty at Aleppo, which maintained itself after Syria and Palestine had been recovered for the Fatimites by Anushtakin al-Dizbari at the battle of Ukhuwanah in 1029. His career is said to have been marked by some horrible caprices similar to those of his father. After a reign of nearly sixteen years he died of the plagud. His successor, Abu Tamim Ma'add, who reigned with the title al-Mostansir, was also an See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

Mahommed al-Sulail}i, while owing to the disputes between the Turkish generals who claimed supremacy at Bagdad, Mostansir's name was mentioned in public prayer at that metropolis on the 12th of See also:

• JANUARY

Mosta'li's succession was not carried through without an attempt on the part of Nizar to obtain his rights, the title which he See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

The vizier was after-wards crucified with his five See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

This event was shortly followed by the loss to the Fatimites of Ascalon, the last place in Syria which they held; its loss was attributed to dissensions between the parties of which the garrison consisted. Four years later (April 1154) the caliph was murdered by his vizier `Abbas, according to Usamah, because the caliph had suggested to his favourite, the vizier's son, to murder his father; and this was followed by a massacre of the brothers of Zafir, followed by the raising of his infant son Abu'l-Qasim 'Isa to the throne. The new caliph, who was not five years old, received the title al-Fa'iz binamr allah, and was at first in the power of 'Abbas. The women of the palace, however, summoned to their aid Tala'i' b. Ruzzik, prefect of Ushmunain, at whose arrival in Cairo the troops deserted 'Abbas, who was compelled to flee into Syria, taking his son and Usamah with him. 'Abbas was killed by the Franks near Ascalon, his son sent in a cage to Cairo where he was executed, while Usamah escaped to Damascus, The infant Fa'iz, who had been permanently incapacitated by the scenes of violence which accompanied his accession, died in 1160. Tala'i' chose to succeed him a grandson of 7rafir, who was nine years of age, and received the title al-';4tlid lidin allah Tala'i', who had complete control of affairs, introduced the II practice of farming the taxes for periods of six months instead of a year, which led to great misery, as the taxes were demanded twice. His death was brought on by the rigour with which he treated the princesses, one of whom, with or without the See also:

• CON

At the same time Egypt was invaded by the Franks, who raided and did much damage on the coast. Dirgham was defeated and killed, but a dispute then arose between Shawar and his Syrian allies for the possession of Egypt. Shawar, being unable to See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

Saladin and his ministers were at first afraid lest this step might give rise to disturbances among the people; but a stranger undertook to See also:

• RISK

The war between the brothers was continued with intervals of peace, during which al-`Adil repeatedly changed sides: eventually he with al-`Aziz besieged and took Damascus, and sent al-Af dal to Sarkhad, while al-'Adil remained in possession of Damascus. On the death of al-'Aziz on the 29th of November 1198 in consequence of a See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

HISTORY) See also:

• JIHAD (also written JEHAD, JAHAD, DJEHAD)

His name is commemorated by the See also:

• TOWN

Aibek meanwhile immediately became involved in war with the Ayyubite Malik al-Nasir, who was in possession of Syria, with whom the caliph induced him after some indecisive actions to make peace: he then successfully quelled a See also:

• MUTINY
• MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin, a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. emeute; the original is the Late Lat. mota, commotion, from movere, to move)

The sultan appears to have contemplated restoring the new caliph to the throne of Bagdad: the force, however, which he sent with him for the purpose of reconquering Irak was quite insufficient for the purpose, and Mostansir was defeated and slain. This did not prevent Bibars from maintaining his policy of appointing an Abbasid for the purpose of conferring legitimacy on himself; but he encouraged no further attempts at re-establishing the Abbasids at Bagdad, and his principle, adopted by successive sultans, was that the caliph should not leave Cairo except when accompanying the sultan on an expedition. Abbasid caliphate revived. The reign of Bibars was spent largely in successful wars against the Crusaders, from whom he took many cities, notably Safad, Caesarea and See also:

• ANTIOCH

The Syrian forces were defeated at the battle of Jazurah (April 26th, 128o) and Kala`un resumed possession of the country; but the disaffected Syrians entered into relations with the Mongols, who proceeded to invade Syria, but were finally defeated by Kald'Un on the 30th of October 1281 under the walls of Horns (Emesa). The conversion to Islam of Nikudar Ahmad, the third of the Ilkhan rulers of Persia, and the consequent troubles in the western • Mongol empire, let to a suspension of hostilities between Egypt and the Ilkhans (see PERSIA: History, § B), though the latter did not cease to agitate in See also:

• EUROPE

This Malik prince had the singular fortune of reigning three times, aFNaslh, being twice dethroned: he was first installed on the 14th of December 1293, when he was nine years old, and the affairs of the kingdom were undertaken by a See also:

• CABINET

This was the last time that the Ilkhans gave the Egyptian sultans serious trouble; and in the letter written in the sultan's name to the Ilkhan announcing the victory, the former suggested that the caliphate of Bagdad should be restored to the titular Abbasid caliph who had accompanied the Egyptian expedition, a See also:

• SUGGESTION

Like other Egyptian sultans he made considerable use of the Assassins, 124 of whom were sent by him into Persia to execute Kara Sonkor, at one time governor of Damascus, and one of the murderers of Malik al-Ashraf; but they were all outwitted by the exile, who was finally poisoned by the Ilkhan in recompense for a similar service rendered by the Egyptian sultan. For a time Malik al-Nasir was recognized as suzerain in north Africa, the Arabian Irak, and Asia Minor, but he was unable to make any permanent conquests in any of these countries. He brought Medina, which had previously been governed by independent sherifs, to acknowledge his authority. His See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

He died on the 7th of June 1341. The son, Abu Bakr, to whom he had left the throne, was able to maintain himself only a few months on it, being compelled to abdicate on the 4th of August 1341 in favour of his infant brother Kuchuk; the revolution was brought about by Kausun, a powerful Mameluke of the preceding monarch. This person's authority was, however, soon overthrown by a party formed by the Syrian prefects, and on the 11th of January Malik al-Nasir Ahmad, an elder son of the former sultan of the same title, was installed in his place, though he did not actually arrive in Cairo till the 6th of November, being unwilling to leave Kerak, where he had been living in retirement. After a brief sojourn in Cairo he speedily returned thither, thereby forfeiting his throne, which was conferred by the amirs on his brother Ismail al-Malik al-Sal See also:

• ILI

The next day a son of the dethroned sultan Hajji was proclaimed sultan with the title Malik al-Mansur. On the 29th of May 1363 this sultan was also dethroned on the ground of incompetence, and his place was given to another grandson of Malik al-Nasir, Sha`ban, son of Hosain, then ten years old. The amir Yelbogha at first held all real power and is said to have acquired a degree of authority which no other subject ever held. During this reign, on the 8th of October 1365, a landing was effected at Alexandria by a Frankish fleet under See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

was restored, when on the 1st of June 1389 Cairo was taken by Yelbogha, governor of Damascus, and Barkuk expelled; IIajji reigned at first under the guardianship of Yelbogha, who was then overthrown by Mintash; Barkuk, who had been relegated to Kerak, succeeded in again forming a party, and in a battle fought at Shakhab, January 1390, succeeded in gaining possession of the person of the sultan Ilajji, and on the 21st of January he was again proclaimed sultan in Cairo. (7) Period of Burji Mamelukes. Barkuk presently entered into relations with the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I., and by slaying an envoy of Timur incurred the displeasure of the world- conqueror; and in 1394 led an army into Syria with the view of restoring the Jelairid Ilkhan Ahmad to Bagdad (as Barkuk's vassal), and meeting the Mongol invasion. Barkuk, however, died (June loth, 1399) before Timur had time to invade Syria. According to the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

Although Faraj succeeded in defeating the rebels, he was compelled by insubordination on the part of his Circassian Mamelukes to abdicate (September loth, 1405), when his brother Abd al-'aziz was proclaimed with the title Malik al-Mansur; after two months this prince was deposed, and Faraj, who had been in hiding, recalled. Most of his reign was, however, occupied with revolts on the part of the Syrian amirs, to quell whom he repeatedly visited Syria; the leaders of the rebels were the amirs Newruz and Sheik Malunudi, afterwards sultan. Owing to disturbances and misgovernment the population of Egypt and Syria is said to have shrunk to a third in his time, and he offended public sentiment not only by debauchery, but by having his image stamped on his coins. On the 23rd of May 1412, after being defeated and shut up in Damascus, he was compelled by Sheik Mabmudi to abdicate, and an Abbasid caliph, Mosta'in, was proclaimed sultan, only to be forced to abdicate on the 6th of November of the same year in Sheik's favour, who took the title Malik al-Mu'ayyad, his colleague Newruz having been previously sent to Syria, where he was to be autocrat by the terms of their agreement. In the struggle which naturally followed between the two, Newruz was shut up in Damascus, defeated and slain. Sheik himself invaded Asia Minor and forced the See also:

• TURKOMAN

Barsbai appears to have excelled his predecessors in the invention of devices for exacting money from merchants and pilgrims, and in juggling with the exchange. This led to a See also:

• NAVAL

In his reign (1463) there began the struggle between the Egyptian and the Ottoman sultanates which finally led to the See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

Kait Bey endeavoured to assist his co-religionists in Spain who were threatened by King See also:

• FERDINAND
• FERDINAND (1577-1650)
• FERDINAND (COLOGNE)
• FERDINAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; Ital. Ferdinando or Ferrante; in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the host," from O. H. G. Heri, "army," A. S. here, Mod. Ger. Heer, and the Goth. nan]jan, " to dare ")
• FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA

In Cairo, when the news of the defeat and death of the Egyptian sultan arrived, the governor who had been left by Kansuh, Tumanbey, was proclaimed sultan (October 17th, 1516). On the loth of January 1517 Cairo was taken by the Ottomans, and Selim shortly after declared sultan of Egypt. Tumanbey continued the struggle for some months, but was finally defeated, and after being captured and kept in prison seventeen days was executed on the 15th of April 1517. (8) The Turkish Period.—The sultan Selim left with his viceroy Khair Bey a guard of 5000 See also:

• JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish yeni cheri, new troops)

It would seem that the constant changes in the government caused the army to get out of control at an early period of the Ottoman occupation, and at the beginning of the 11th Islamic century mutinies became common; in 1013 (16(4) the governor Ibrahim Pasha was murdered by the soldiers, and his head set on the Bab Zuwela. The See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

Hereupon the garrison of Alexandria attacked the See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

At the end of that time Qasim Iywaz was killed and the office which he had held was given to his son Ismail. Ismail held this office for sixteen years, while the pashas were constantly being changed, and succeeded in reconciling the two factions of Mamelukes. In 1724 this person was assassinated through the machinations of the pasha, and Shirkas Bey, of the opposing See also:

• FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons combined for action, facere, to do; from the other French derivative facon comes " fashion ")

`Ali Bey, who had first distinguished himself by defending a caravan in Arabia against bandits, set himself the task of ArBey. avenging the death of his former master Ibrahim, and spent eight years in purchasing Mamelukes and winning other adherents. He thereby excited the suspicions of the Sheik al-Balad Khalil Bey, who organized an attack upon him in the streets of Cairo, in consequence of which he fled to Upper Egypt. Here he met one Salill Bey, who had injuries to avenge on Khalil Bey, and the two organized a force with which they returned to Cairo and defeated Khalil, who was forced to fly to See also:

• TANTA

In 1769 a demand came to 'All Bey for a force of 12,000 men to be employed by the Porte in the See also:

• RUSSIAN

1771) to conquer Syria; and agents were sent to negotiate alliances with Venice and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

He accordingly started for Egypt at the head of an army of 8000 men, and on the 19th of April met the army of Abu'l-Dhahab at Salihia. 'Ali's forces were successful at the first engagement; but when the battle was renewed two days later he was deserted by some of his officers, and prevented by illness and wounds from himself taking the conduct of affairs. The result was a complete defeat for his army, after which he declined to leave his See also:

• TENT

These two persons were still in office when See also:

• BONAPARTE

454; Jamal al-din 'Ali al-Qifti, d. 568; Jamal al-din al-l3alabi, d. 623; 'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, d. 629; Mahommed b. 'Abd al-Aziz al-See also:

• IDRISI, or EDRISI [Abu Abdallah Mahommed Ibn Mahommed Ibn Abdallah Ibn Idrisi, c. A.D. 1099-1154]

Tha'lab Kamal al-din al-Adfu'i (history of Upper Egypt), d. 730; 'Abd al-Qarun al-Halabi, d. 735; Ibn Habib, d. 779; Ibn Duqmaq, d. 790; Ibn Tughan, Shihab al-din al-Aubadi, d. 790; Ibn al-Mulaqqin, d. 806; Maqrizi, Taqiyy al-din Abmad, d. 84o; Ibn I;Iajar al-'Asgalani, d. 852 ; al-Sakhawi, d. 902 ; Abu'l-Mahasin b. Taghribirdi, d. 874; Jalal al-din al-Suyuti, d.

911 ; Ibn Zunbul al-Rammal; Ibn Iyas, d. after 928; Mahommed b. Abi Surur, d. after 1o17; Zain al-din al Karami, d. 1033; 'Abd I05 al-Rahman Jabarti, d. after 1236. Of many of the Mameluke sultans there are special chronicles preserved in various See also:

• EUROPEAN

399; Sari' al-Dila (Ali b.'Abd al-Wahid), encomiast of the Fatimite al-Zahir, d. 412; Sanajat al-See also:

• DAUB, KARL (1765-1836)

768; Ibn Abi I;lajalah, d. 776; See also:

• BARHAM, RICHARD HARRIS (1788-1845)

The needs of the Egyptian court produced a number of elegant letter-writers, of whom the most famous were 'Abd al-Rabim b. 'Ali al-Baisani, ordinarily known as al-Qadi' al-Fadil, d. 596, secretary of state to Saladin and other Ayyubite sultans; 'Imad al-din al-Ispahani, d. 597, also secretary of state and official chronicler; and Ibn 'Abd al-Zahir, d. 692, secretary of state to Bibars I. and succeeding sultans; he was followed by his son Fath al-din, to whom`the title " Secret writer " was first given. In the subject of law Egypt boasts that the See also:

• IMAM

Abu'l-Hasan al-Shadhili (d. 656) is celebrated as the founder of the Shadhili order; but there were many others of note. The See also:

• DICTIONARY

See also:

• MUIR, JOHN (1810-1882)
• MUIR, SIR WILLIAM (1819-1905)

It does not appear that the proclamation convinced many of the Egyptians of the truth of these professions. After the battle of Ambabah, at which the forces of both Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey were dispersed, the populace readily plundered the houses of the beys, and a deputation was sent from al-Azhar to Bonaparte to ascertain his intentions; these proved to be a repetition of the terms of his proclamation, and, though the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

From that ill-fated expedition he returned at the beginning of June. Advantage had been taken of this opportunity by Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey to collect their forces and attempt a joint attack on Cairo, but this Bonaparte arrived in time to defeat, and in the last See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

He died shortly afterwards and was succeeded by See also:

• OSMAN (1832-1900)
• OSMAN (`UsMAN)

D. Belliard, who had been left in charge at Cairo, was assailed on two sides by the British forces under General See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

some killed, some made prisoners; among the last was Osman Bey al-Bardisi, who was severely wounded. General Hutchinson, British, informed of this treachery, immediately assumed Turks and threatening measures against the Turks, and in Mame- consequence the killed, wounded and prisoners were /ekes. given up to him. At the same time Yusuf Pasha arrested all the beys in Cairo, but was shortly compelled by the British to See also:

• RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare)

The tumult continued all the day, and the next See also:

• MORNING

In .consequence of the alliance between Mehemet Ali and a]-Bardisi, the Albanians gave the citadel over to the Mamelukes; and soon after, these allies marched against Khosrev Pasha, who having been joined by a considerable body of Turks, and being in possession of Damietta, was enabled to offer an obstinate resistance. After much loss on both sides, he was taken prisoner and brought to Cairo; but he was treated with respect. The victorious soldiery sacked the town of Damietta, and were guilty of the barbarities usual with them on such occasions. A few days later, Ali Pasha Jazairli landed at Alexandria with an imperial See also:

• FIRMAN (an adaptation of the Per. ferman, a mandate or patent, cognate with the Sanskrit pramdna, a measure, authority)

They next seized his boats conveying soldiers, servants, and his ammunition and baggage; and, following him, they demanded wherefore he brought with him so numerous a body of men, in opposition to usage and to their previous warning. Finding they would not allow his troops to advance, forbidden himself to retreat with them to Alexandria, and being surrounded by the enemy, he would have hazarded a battle, but his men refused to fight. He therefore went to the camp of the beys, and his army was compelled to retire to Syria. In the hands of the beys Ali Pasha again attempted treachery. A horseman was seen to leave his tent one night at full gallop; he was the See also:

• BEARER

In the meanwhile al-Alfi the Great embarked at Rosetta, and not apprehending opposition, was on his way to Cairo, when a little south of the town of Manfif he encountered a party of Albanians, and with difficulty made his escape. He gained the eastern See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

The forces of the partisans of al-Bardisi were rava .iing the country a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

These troops had been sent for by KhorshId in order to strengthen himself against the Albanians; and the events of this portion of the history afford sad proof of their ferocity and brutal enormities, I Khosrev Pasha afterwards filled several of the highest offices at Constantinople. He died on the 1st of February 1855. He was a See also:

• BIGOT

Khorshid, being informed of the insurrection, immediately prepared to stand a siege in the citadel. Two chiefs of the Albanians joined his party, but many of his soldiers deserted. Mehemet Ali's great strength lay in the devotion of the citizens of Cairo, who looked on him as a deliverer from their afflictions; and great numbers armed themselves, advising constantly with Mehemet Ali, having the sayyid Omar and the sheiks at their head, and guarding the town at night. On the loth of the same month Mehemet Ali began to besiege Khorshid. After the siege had continued many days, Khorshid gave orders to cannonade and bombard the town; and for six days his commands were executed with little interruption, the citadel itself also lying between two fires. Mehemet Ali's position at this time was very critical: his troops became mutinous for their pay; the silandar, who had commanded one of the expeditions against the Mamelukes, advanced to the See also:

• RELIEF

Soon after this, a See also:

• SQUADRON

Falling back towards their companions, they found the bye-streets closed; and in that part of the main thoroughfare called See also:

• BAIN, ALEXANDER (1818-1903)
• BAIN, ANDREW GEDDES (1797-1864)

Al-Alfi offered his sub-See also:

• MISSION

See also:

• MACKENZIE
• MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892)
• MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847— )
• MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691)
• MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892)
• MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861)

Some hundreds of British heads were now exposed on stakes in Cairo, and the prisoners were marched between these mutilated remains of their countrymen. The beys became divided in their wishes, one party being desirous of co-operating with the British, the other with the pasha. These delays proved ruinous to their cause; and General Fraser, despairing of their assistance, evacuated Alexandria on the 14th of September. From that date to the spring of 1811 the beys from time to time relinquished certain of their demands; the pasha on his part granted them what before had been withheld; the province of the Fayum, and part of those of Giza and Beni-Suef, were ceded to Shahan; and a great portion of the Said, on the condition of paying the land-tax, to the others, Many of them took up their See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

The few who regained the See also:

• SUMMIT

See A. A See also:

• PATON, JOHN BROWN (1830- )
• PATON, SIR JOSEPH NOEL (1821-1901)

In the following year Tusun, having received reinforcements, again assumed the offensive, and captured Medina after a prolonged siege. He next took Jidda And Mecca, defeating the Wahhabis beyond the latter place and capturing their general. But some mishaps followed, and Mehemet Ali, who had determined to conduct the war in person, left Egypt for that purpose in the summer of 1813. In Arabia he encountered serious obstacles from the nature of the country and the harassing mode of warfare adopted by his adversaries. His arms met with various fortunes; but on the whole his forces proved superior to those of the enemy. He deposed and exiled the sharif of Mecca, and after the death of the Wahhabi leader Saud II. he concluded in 1815 a treaty with Saud's son and successor, Abdullah. Hearing of the escape of See also:

• NAPOLEON

Mehemet Ali's life was endangered, and he sought refuge by night in the citadel, while the soldiery committed many acts of plunder. The revolt was reduced by presents to the chiefs of the insurgents, and Mehemet Ali ordered that the sufferers by the disturbances should receive compensation from the treasury. The project of the See also:

• NIZAM

But some of his projects were See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

Nubia at once submitted, the See also:

• SHAGIA (SHAIGIA, SHAIKIYEH)