Online Encyclopedia
Search over 40,000 articles from the original, classic Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Edition.
BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD
Online EncyclopediaEncyclopedia Home :: AUD-BAI
del.icio.us it!
|
See also:BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD , the See also:capital of the See also:Turkish vilayet of the same name. It is the headquarters of the VI. See also:Army See also:Corps, which garrisons also the See also:Basra and See also:Mosul vilayets. It lies on both sides of the See also:river See also:Tigris, in an extensive See also:desert See also:plain which has scarcely a See also:tree or See also:village throughout its whole extent, in See also:latitude 33° 20' N., See also:longitude 44° 24' E. At this point the Tigris and the See also:Euphrates approach each other most nearly, the distance between them being little. more than 25 M. At this point also the two See also:rivers are connected by a See also:canal, the northernmost of a See also:series of 'canals which formerly See also:united the two See also:great waterways, and at the same See also:time irrigated the intervening plain. This canal, the Sakhlawieh (formerly Isa), leaves the Euphrates a few See also:miles above Feluja and the See also:bridge of boats, near the ruins of the See also:ancient See also:Anbar. As it approaches Bagdad it spreads out in a great See also:marsh, and finally, through the Masudi canal, which encircles western Bagdad, enters the Tigris below the See also:town. At the time of See also:Chesney's survey of the Euphrates in 1838 this canal was still navigable for See also:craft of some See also:size. At See also:present it serves no other purpose than to increase the floods which periodically turn Bagdad into an See also:island See also:city, and some-times threaten to overwhelm the dikes which protect it and to submerge it entirely. The See also:original city of Bagdad was built on the western See also:bank of the Tigris, but this is now, and has been for centuries, Iittle more than a suburb of the larger and more important city on the eastern See also:shore, the former containing an See also:area of only146 acres within the walls, while the latter extends over 591 acres. Both the eastern and the western See also:part of the city were formerly enclosed by See also:brick walls, with large See also:round towers at the See also:principal angles and smaller towers intervening at shorter distances, the whole surrounded by a deep See also:fosse. There were three See also:gates in the western city and four in the eastern; one of the latter, however, on the See also:north See also:side, called " See also:Gate of the See also:Talisman " from an Arabic inscription bearing the date A.U. 1220, has remained closed since the See also:capture of the city by See also:Murad IV. in 1638. These walls all See also:fell into decay See also:long since; at places they were used as brick quarries, and finally the great reforming See also:governor, (1868-1872), Midhat See also:Pasha, following the example set by many See also:European cities, undertook to destroy them altogether and utilize the See also:free space thus obtained as a public See also:park and esplanade. His plans were only partially carried out. At present fragments of the walls exist here and there, with the great ditch about them, while elsewhere a See also:line of mounds marks their course. A great portion of the ground within the See also:wall lines is not occupied by buildings, especially in the north-western See also:quarter; and even in the more populous parts of the city, near the river, a considerable space between the houses is occupied by gardens, where pomegranates, See also:figs, oranges, lemons and date-palms grow in great abundance, so that the city, when seen at a distance, has the See also:appearance of rising out of the midst of trees. Along the Tigris the city spreads out into suburbs, the most important of which is Kazemain, on the western side of the river northward, opposite which on the eastern side lies Muazzam. The former of these is connected with western Bagdad by a very See also:primitive See also:horse-See also:tramway, also a relic of Midhat Pasha's reforms. The two parts of the city are joined by See also:pontoon See also:bridges, one in the suburbs and one in the See also:main city. The Tigris is at this point some 275 yds. wide and very deep. Its See also:banks are of mud, with no other retaining walls than those formed by the See also:foundations of the houses, which are consequently always liable to be undermined by the See also:action of the See also:water. The western part of the city, which is very irregular in shape, is occupied entirely by Shi'as. It has its own shops, bazaars, mosques, &c., and constitutes a quarter by itself. Beyond the wall line on that side vestiges of ancient buildings are visible in various directions, and the plain is strewn with fragments of bricks, tiles and rubbish. A burying-ground has also extended itself over a large See also:tract of See also:land, formerly occupied by the streets of the city. The See also:form of the new or eastern city is that of an irregular oblong, about 1500 paces in length by Boo in breadth. The town has been built without the slightest regard to regularity; the streets are even more intricate and winding than those in most other Eastern towns, and with the exception of the bazaars and some open squares, the interior is little else than a See also:labyrinth of alleys and passages. The streets are unpaved and in many places so narrow that two horsemen can scarcely pass each other; as it is seldom that the houses have windows facing the thoroughfares, and the doors are small and mean, they present on both sides the gloomy appearance of dead walls. All the buildings, both public and private, are constructed of See also:furnace-burnt bricks of a yellowish-red See also:colour, principally derived from the ruins of other places, chiefly Madain (See also:Ctesiphon), Wasit and See also:Babylon, which have been plundered at various times to furnish materials for the construction of Bagdad. The houses of the richer classes are regularly built about an interior See also:court. The ground See also:floor, except for the serdab, is given up to kitchens, See also:store-rooms, servants' quarters, stables, &c. The principal rooms are on the first floor and open directly from a covered veranda, which is' reached by an open See also:staircase from the court. These constitute the See also:winter See also:residence of the See also:family, reception rooms, &c. The See also:roofs of the houses are all See also:flat, surrounded by parapets of sufficient height to protect them from the observation of the dwellers opposite, and See also:separate them from their neighbours. In the summer the See also:population sleeps and dines upon the roofs, which thus constitute to all intents a third See also:storey. The See also:remainder of the See also:day, so far as family See also:life is concerned, is spent in the serdab, a cellar sunk somewhat below the level of the courtyard, See also:damp from frequent wettings, with its See also:half windows covered with hurdles thatched with See also:camel See also:thorn and kept dripping with water. Occasionally the serdabs are provided with punkahs. Sometimes, in the months of See also:June, See also:July and See also:August, when the skerki or See also:south See also:wind is blowing, the thermometer at breakof day is known to stand at 112° F., while at See also:noon it rises to 119° and a little before two o'See also:clock to 122°, See also:standing at sunset at 1140, but this See also:scale of temperature is exceptional. Ordinarily during the summer months the thermometer averages from about 75° at sunrise to 1070 at the hottest time of the day. Owing to the extreme dryness of the See also:atmosphere and the fact that there is always a See also:breeze, usually from the N.W., this See also:heat is See also:felt much less than a greatly See also:lower temperature in a more humid atmosphere. Moreover, the nights are almost invariably cool. Formerly Bagdad was intersected by innumerable canals and aqueducts which carried the water of both the Euphrates and the Tigris through the streets and into the houses. To-day these have all vanished, with the exception of one See also:aqueduct which still conveys the water of the Tigris to the See also:shrine of See also:Abel al-Qadir (ul-Kadir). The present population draws its water directly from the Tigris, and it is distributed through the city in See also:goat-skins carried on the backs of men and asses. There is, of course, no See also:sewerage See also:system, the surfaces of the streets serving that purpose, and what garbage and refuse is not consumed by the See also:dog scavengers washes down into the Tigris at the same See also:place from which the water for drinking is See also:drawn. As a consequence of these insanitary conditions the See also:death-See also:rate is very high, and' in See also:case of epidemics the mortality is enormous. At such times a large part of the population leaves the city and encamps in the desert northward. The principal public buildings of the city, such as they are, See also:lie in the eastern See also:section along the river bank. To the north, just within the old wall line, stands the citadel, surrounded by a high wall, with a lofty clock-See also:tower which commands an excellent view. To the south of this, also on the Tigris, is the serai or See also:palace of the Turkish governor, distinguished rather for extent than grandeur. It is comparatively See also:modern, built at different periods, a large and confused structure without proportion, beauty or strength. Somewhat farther southward, just below the pontoon bridge, stands the See also:custom See also:house, which occupies the site and is built out of the material of the medreseh or See also:college of Mostansir (A.D. 1233). Of the original See also:building of the See also:caliph Mostansir all that remains is a See also:minaret and a small portion of the See also:outer walls. Farther down are the imposing buildings of the See also:British residency. The See also:German consulate also is on the river-front. As in all See also:Mahommedan cities, the mosques are conspicuous See also:objects. Of these very few are old. The Marjanieh See also:mosque, not far from the minaret of Mostansir, although its See also:body is modern, has some remains of old and very See also:rich See also:arabesque See also:work on its See also:surface, dating from the r4th See also:century. The See also:door is formed by a lofty See also:arch of the pointed form guarded on both sides with red bands exquisitely sculptured and having numerous See also:inscriptions. The mosque of Khaseki, supposed to have been an old See also:Christian See also: More important than the mosques proper are the See also:tomb mosques. Of these, the most important and most imposing is that of Kazemain, in the See also:northern suburb of the western city. Here are buried the seventh and ninth of the successors of See also:Ali, recognized by Shi'as, namely Musa See also:Ibn Ja'far el-Kazim, and his See also:grandson, Mahommed Ibn Ali el-Jawad. In its present form this. mosque dates from the 19th century. The two. great domes above the tombs, the four lofty minarets and part of the See also:facade of this shrine, are overlaid with See also:gold, and from whatever direction the traveler approaches Bagdad, its glittering domes and minarets are the first objects which meet his See also:eye. It is one of the four great shrines of the Shiite Moslems in the vilayet of Bagdad. Christians are not allowed to enter its precincts, and the population of the Kazemain quarter is so fanatical that it is difficult and even dangerous to approach it. In the suburb of Muazzam, on the western side of the river, is the tomb of See also:Abu IJanifa (q.v.), the See also:canon lawyer. There is a large mosque with a painted dome connected with this tomb, which is an See also:object of veneration to the Sunni Moslems, but it seems cheap and unworthy in comparison with the magnificent shrine of Kazemain. On the same side of the river, lower down, is the shrine of Abd al-Qadir al Jilani (of Jilan), founder of the Qadirite (Kadaria) See also:sect of dervishes, also a noted place of See also:pilgrimage. The original tomb was erected about A.D. 1253, but the present fine dome above the See also:grave is later by at least two or three centuries. The possessor or controller of • this wealthy mosque is the nakib, locally pronounced najeeb, or See also:marshal of the nobles, whose See also:office is to determine who are Se`ids,. i.e. entitled to See also:wear the See also:green See also:turban. He is second only to the governor or vali pasha in See also:power, and indeed his See also:influence is often greater than that of the See also:official ruler of the vilayet. Just outside of the wall of the western city lies the tomb and shrine of Ma`ruf Karkhi, dating from A.D. 1215, which also is a place of pilgrimage. See also:Close to this stands the so-called tomb of Sitte Zobeide (Zobaida), with its octagonal See also:base and pineapple dome, one of the most conspicuous and curious objects in the neighbourhood of Bagdad. Unfortunately it is rapidly falling into decay. K. See also:Niebuhr reports that in his day (A .D. 1750) this tomb See also:bore an inscription setting forth that Ayesha Khanum, the wife of the governor of Bagdad, was buried here in 1488, her grave having been made in the ancient See also:sepulchre of the See also:lady Zobeide (Zobaida), granddaughter of Caliph Mansur and wife of See also:Harun al-Rashid, who died in A.D. 831. The tomb was restored at the time of her See also:burial, at which date it was already ancient, and it was evidently believed to be the tomb of Zobeide. See also:Con-temporary historians, however, See also:state that Zobeide was actually buried in Kazemain, and moreover, See also:early writers, who describe the neighbouring tomb and shrine of Ma'ruf Karkhi, make no reference to this See also:monument. About 3 M. See also:west of Bagdad, on the Euphrates road, in or by a See also: The streets of the entire business section of the city are roofed over in this manner, and in the summer months the shelter from the See also:sun is very grateful, but in the winter these streets are extremely trying to the foreign visitor, owing to their darkness and their damp and chilly atmosphere. Bagdad is about 500 M. from the See also:Persian Gulf, following the course of the river. It maintains See also:steam communication with Basra, its See also:port, which is situated on the Shatt el-Arab, somewhat more than 5o m. from the Persian Gulf, by means of two lines of steamers, one English and one Turkish. British steamers were first placed upon the Tigris as a result of the expedition of See also:Colonel F. R. Chesney, in 1836. Since that time, a British See also:gun-See also:boat has been stationed before the residency, and British steamers have been allowed to navigate the river. Only two of these, however, maintain a weekly connexion with Basra, and they are quite inadequate to the See also:freight See also:traffic between the two cities: The more numerous vessels of the Turkish service are so small, so inadequately equipped and so poorly :handled, that they are used for either passenger or freight transport only by those who cannot secure the services of the British steamers. The See also:navigation of the Tigris during the greater party of its course from Bagdad to Korna is slow and uncertain. The river, See also:running through an absolutely flat See also:country, composed entirely of alluvial See also:soil, is See also:apt to See also:change its channel. In See also:flood time the country at places becomes a huge See also:lake, through which it is extremely difficult to find the channel. In the dry See also:season, the autumn and winter, on the other See also:hand, there is danger of grounding on the constantly shifting flats and shoals. To add to the uncertainties of navigation, the inhabitants along the eastern bank of the stream frequently dig new canals for See also:irrigation purposes, which both reduces the water of the river and tends to make it shift its channel. Above Bagdad there are no steamers on the Tigris, but sailing vessels of 30 tons and more navigate the river to Samarra and beyond. The characteristic craft for See also:local service in the immediate environment of Bagdad is the See also:kufa, a circular boat of See also:basket-work covered with See also:bitumen, often of a size sufficient to carry five or six horses and a dozen men. These boats have been employed from the remotest antiquity through all this region, and are often depicted on the old See also:Assyrian monuments. Equally ancient are the rafts called kellek, constructed of inflated goat-skins, covered with a See also:frame-work of See also:wood, often supporting a small house for passengers, which descend the Tigris from above Diarbekr. The wood of these rafts is sold in Bagdad, and constitutes, in fact, the chief See also:supply of wood in that city. Bagdad also lies on a natural line of communication between See also:Persia and the west, the ancient See also:caravan route from See also:Khorasan debouching from the mountains at this point, while another natural caravan route led up the Euphrates to See also:Syria and the Mediterranean and still another up the Tigris to See also:Armenia and the See also:Black See also:Sea. It was its situation at the centre of the lines of communication between See also:India and Persia and the west, both by land and water, which gave the city its great importance in early times. With the change of the methods of transportation, its importance has naturally declined. The See also:trade of Persia with the west now passes either through the ports of the Persian Gulf or northward over See also:Trebizond, while India communicates with the west directly through the See also:Suez Canal. Bagdad is, therefore, a decayed city. See also:Money is scarce among all classes, and the See also:wages of See also:common labourers are scarcely half what is paid in Syria. It is still, however, the centre of See also:distribution for a very large, if scantily populated, country, and it also derives much profit from pilgrims, lying as it does on the route which Shiite pilgrims from Persia must take on their way to the sacred cities. It also possesses important shrines of its own which cause many pilgrims to linger there, and wealthy See also:Indians not infrequently choose Bagdad as a suitable spot in which to end their days in the odour of sanctity. There has also sprung up of See also:late years considerable See also:direct trade between the European and See also:American markets and Bagdad, and several foreign houses, especially English, have established themselves there. See also:Germany also has invaded this See also:market. The See also:staple articles of export are hides, See also:wool and dates. The export trade of Bagdad amounts to about £750,000 annually, and the import trade to about £2,000,000. The imports consist of oil, cheap cottons, shoes and other similar goods, which are taking the place of the picturesque native manufactures. Even the Bedouin See also:Arabs wear headdresses of cheap European See also:cotton stuff See also:purchased in Bagdad or thereabouts, while the common water vessels throughout the country are five-See also:gallon. See also:petroleum tins, which also furnish See also:metal for the manufacture of various utensils in the native bazaars. Bagdad is in communication with See also:Europe by means of two lines of See also:telegraph, one British and one Turkish, and two postal services. There is a British See also:consul-general, who is also See also:political See also:agent to the See also:Indian See also:government. His state is second only to that of the British See also:ambassador at See also:Constantinople. Besides the gunboat in the river, he has a guard of sepoys, and there is an Indian See also:post-office in the residency. Formerly the British government maintained a camel-post across the desert to See also:Damascus. This was abandoned about r88o when the See also:Turks established a similar service. By means of the Turkish camel-post letters reached Damascus in nine days. There is also a See also:Russian consul-general at Bagdad, and See also:French, See also:Austrian and American consuls. The Euphrates Valley (or Bagdad) railway See also:scheme, which had previously been discussed, was brought forward prominently in 1899, and Russian proposals to undertake it were rejected. British proposals followed, but were opposed by the Germans, who, as controlling the line to See also:Konia in See also:Asia See also:Minor, claimed preference in the See also:matter. A provisional See also:convention was granted to a German See also:company by the See also:Porte, and an irade was obtained in 1902. In 1903 there was considerable discussion as to the placing of the line under See also:international See also:control, and the question aroused See also:special See also:interest in See also:England in view of the See also:short route which the line would provide to India, in connexion with fast steamship services in the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. It was decided by the British government that the proposals made to this effect did not offer sufficient See also:security. The See also:financial arrangement as finally agreed upon was that German financiers should control 40 % of the capital of the line; French (through the Imperial See also:Ottoman Bank), 30 %; Austrian, Swiss, See also:Italian and Turkish, 20 %; and the Anatolian Railway Company, 10 %. In 1904 the line was completed from Konia through Eregli to Bulgurli. In 1908 an irade sanctioned the See also:extension across the See also:Taurus to See also:Adana, and so to Helif near See also:Mardin (52 2 m.). The population of Bagdad is estimated variously from 70,000 to 200,000; perhaps halfway between may represent approximately the reality. More than two-thirds of the population are Moslems, mostly Shi'as, with the exception of the official classes. There are about 34,000 Jews occupying a quarter of their own in the north-western part of the city; while in a neighbouring quarter dwell upwards of 6000 Christians, chiefly so-called Chaldaeans or See also:Nestorians. The See also:Carmelites maintain a See also:mission in Bagdad, as does also the (English) Church Missionary Society. The Jews are the only part of the population who are provided with See also:schools. A school for boys was established by the See also:Alliance Israelite in 1865, and one for girls in 1899. Besides these, there is also an apprentice school for See also:industrial training. The Jews constitute the wealthiest and most intelligent portion of the population. A large part of the foreign trade is in their hands, and at the season of the See also:sheep-shearing their agents and representatives are found everywhere among the See also:Bedouins and See also:Madan Arabs of the interior, purchasing the wool and selling various commodities in return. They are the bankers of the country, and it is through their communications that the travelleris able to obtain See also:credit. They are also the dealers in antiquities, both genuine and fraudulent. Next to them in enterprise and prosperity are the Persians. The porters of the town are all Kurds, the river-men Chaldaean Christians. Every nation retains its See also:peculiar See also:dress. The characteristic, but by no means attractive, See also:street dress of the Moslem See also:women of the better class comprises a black horse-See also:hair See also:visor completely covering the See also:face and projecting like an enormous See also:beak, the nether extremities being encased in yellow boots reaching to the See also:knee and fully displayed by the method of draping the garments in front.
Bagdad is governed by a pasha, assisted by a See also:council. The pasha and the higher officials in general come from Constantinople, but a very large portion of the other Turkish officials seem to come from the town of See also:Kerkuk. They constitute a class quite distinct from the native Arab population, and they and the Turkish government in general are intensely unpopular among the Arabs, an unpopularity increased by their religious See also:differences, the Arabs being as a See also:rule See also:Shiites, the Turks See also:Sunnites. Besides the court of See also:superior See also:officers, which assists the pasha in the general See also:administration of the See also:province, there is also a mejlis or mixed tribunal for the See also:settlement of municipal and commercial affairs, to which both Christian and Jewish merchants are admitted. Besides these, there are the religious heads of the community, especially the nakib and Jewish high priest, who possess an undefined and extensive authority in their own communities. The Jewish chief priest may be said to be the successor of the See also:exilarch or resh galutha of the earlier period.
See also:History.—There are in or near Bagdad a few remains of a period antedating See also:Islam, the most conspicuous of which are the ruins of the palace of See also:Chosroes at Ctesiphon or Madain, about 15 M. below Bagdad on the See also:east side of the river. Almost equally conspicuous, and a landmark through the whole region, is the ruin called Akerkuf, in the desert, about 9 m. west-See also: Inscribed bricks found in the neighbourhood seem to connect this ruin with Kurigalzu, See also: It See also:grew with great rapidity. The suburb of Rusafa, on the eastern bank, sprang up almost immediately, and after the See also:siege and capture of the round city by See also:Mamun, in 814, this became the most important part of the capital. The period of the greatest prosperity of Bagdad was the period from its See also:foundation until the death of Mamun, the successor of Harun, in 833. During this period the city, including both sides of the river, was 5 M. across within the walls, and it is said to have had a population of 2,000,000 souls. In literature, See also:art and See also:science, it divided the supremacy of the See also:world with See also:Cordova; in See also:commerce and See also:wealth it far surpassed that city. How its splendour impressed the See also:imagination may be seen from the stories of the Arabian Nights. It was the religious capital of all Islam, and the political capital of the greater part of it, at a time when Islam bore the same relation to See also:civilization which Christendom does to-day. As in See also:Spanish Islam, so in the lands of the eastern caliphate, the Jews were treated relatively with favour. The seat of the exilarch or resh galutha was transferred from Pumbedita(Pumbeditha or Pombeditha) inBabylonia to Bagdad, which thus became the capital of See also:oriental Judaism; from then to the present day the Jews have played no mean part in Bagdad. Situated in a region where there is no stone, and practically no See also:timber, Bagdad was built, like all the cities of the Babylonian plain, of brick and tiles. Its buildings depended for their effect principally on See also:mass and gorgeous colouring. Like old Babylon, also, Bagdad was celebrated throughout the world for its brilliant-coloured textile fabrics. So famous was the See also:silk of Bagdad, manufactured in the Attabieh quarter (named after Attab, a contemporary of the See also:Prophet), that the place-name passed over into Spanish, Italian, French and finally into English in the form of " tabby," as the designation of a rich-coloured watered silk. Depending on coloured tiles and gorgeous fabrics for their rich effects, nothing of the buildings of the times of Harun al-Rashid or Mamun, once counted so magnificent, have come down to us. All have perished in the numerous sieges and inundations which have devastated the city. With the rise of the Turkish body-guard under Mamun's successor, Mo'tassim, began the downfall of the Abbasid dynasty, and with it of the Abbasid capital, Bagdad. Mo'tassim founded Samarra, and for fifty-eight years caliph and court deserted Bagdad (see CALIPHATE, sect. C). Then, in A.D. 865, Mosta'in, attempting to See also:escape from the tyranny of the Turkish guard, fled back again to Bagdad. The attempt was futile, Bagdad was besieged and taken, and from that time until their final downfall the Abbasid caliphs were See also:mere puppets, while the real rulers were successively the Turkish guard, the Buyids and the See also:Seljuks. But during all this period the caliphs continued to be the religious heads of Islam and their residence its capital. Bagdad, accordingly, although fallen from its first See also:eminence, continued to be a city of the first See also:rank, and during most of that period still the richest and most splendid city in the world. Its religious importance is attested by the number of its great shrines dating from those times; as for its wealth and size, while, as stated above, few remains of the actual buildings of that period survive, we still have abundant records describing their See also:character, their size and their position. With the last century of the caliphates began a more rapid decline. From the records of that period it seems that the present city is identical in the position of its walls and the space occupied by the town proper with Bagdad at the close of the 12th century, the period when this rapid decline had already advanced so far that the western city is described by travellers as almost in ruins, and the eastern half as containing large uninhabited spaces. With the capture of the city by the See also:Mongols, under Hulagu (Hulaku), the grandson of Jenghiz Khan, in 1258, and the extinction of the Abbasid caliphate of Bagdad, its importance as the religious centre of Islam passed away, and it ceased to be a city of the first rank, although the glamour of its former grandeur still clung to it, so that even to-day in Turkish official documents it is called the " glorious city."
The See also:Tatars retained possession of Bagdad for a century and a half, until about A.D. 1400. Then it was taken by Timur, from whom the See also:sultan Ahmed See also:Ben Avis fled, and, finding See also:refuge with the See also:Greek See also:emperor, contrived later to repossess himself of the city, whence he was finally expelled by Kara Yusuf of the Kara-Kuyunli (" Black Sheep ") Mongols in 1417. About 1468 the descendants of the latter were driven out by Uzun See also:Hasan or Cassim of the Ak-Kuyunli (" See also: See also:Nadir Shah, the able and energetic usurper of the Persian See also:throne, attempting to annex the province once more to Persia, besieged the city, but Ahmed defended it with such courage that the invader was compelled to raise the siege, after suffering great loss. Turkish authority over the pashalic was again restored in the first part of the 19th century. See also:Atrium:Ir1Es.—Allen's Indian See also:Mail (1874); J. S. See also:Buckingham.. Travels in See also:Mesopotamia (1827) Sir R. K. See also:Porter, Travels in See also:Georgia. Persia, Armenia and Ancient Babylonia (1821-1822) ; J. M. Kinneir, See also:Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire (1813); F. R. Chesney. Expedition (185o); J. B. L. J. See also: 917, " in See also:Journal Royal See also:Asiatic Society, 1895, 1897; Baghdad under the Abbasid Caliphate (1901). (H. C. R.; J. P. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
» Add information or comments to this article.
Please link directly to this article:
Highlight the code below, right click, and select "copy." Then paste it into your website, email, or other HTML. Site content, images, and layout Copyright © 2006 - Net Industries, worldwide. |
|
|
[back] BAGATELLE (French, from Ital. bagatella,.bagata, a ... |
[next] BAGEHOT, WALTER (1826-1877) |