TALMUD , the See also:

• GREAT

It forms the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

(5) Shebi`ith (" seventh "), on the sabbatical See also:

• YEAR

18-21. (to) 'Orlah (" foreskin " [of trees]), on Lev. xix. 23-25. (II) Bikkiitrim (" first-fruits "), on Ex. xxiii. 19; Deut. See also:

• XXVI

(2) `Erubin (" mixtures " or amalgamations), on legitimate methods of avoiding inconvenient restrictions on the Sabbath. (3) Pesahim (" passovers "—sacrifices and meals), on Ex. xii, xiii. 6-8, xxiii. 15; Lev. xxiii. 5 sqq. ; Num. See also:

• XXVIII

" the day "), or Kippurim (" See also:

• ATONEMENT

(8) Rosh ha-Shanah (" New Year festival "), on the services, the See also:

• CALENDAR

(4) Nazir (" Nazirite "), on Num. vi. (5) Giftin (" documents "), on See also:

• DIVORCE

(3) B. See also:

• BATHS

(9) 'AbOth or Pirqe A. (" sayings of the fathers "), a famous collection of See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

7-16, xiv. 10-20, &c. (3) Hullin or Shehilath H. (" [the slaughter of] See also:

• COMMON

2 sqq., 28 seq. (6) Temurah (" See also:

• EXCHANGE

Lev. i. 14–17, v. I sqq., xii. 8). VI. Tohoroth or Teh., " purifications," a See also:

• EUPHEMISM (from Gr. eiiidirl sos, having a sound of good omen; et)

14–20), &c. (3) Nega'im (" plagues," i.e. leprosy), on Lev. seq. (4) See also:

• FARAH

(8) Makshirin (" predisposing "), or Mashgin (" liquids "), on defilement caused by wet unclean things (cf. Lev. xi. 34, 37 seq.). (9) Zabim (" those with a See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

(12) Ugrin (' stems "), on the relation between fruit and the stems and stalks as regards defilement, &c. To Order IV. the Babylonian recension of the Talmud adds seven See also:

• TREATISES

(5) Rabbah, and (6) See also:

• ZULA

1–3 originally formed one (called Nezigin) and IV. 4, 5 were See also:

• UNITED

The traditional view is well illustrated in the words ascribed to R. See also:

• SIMEON
• SIMEON (or SYMEON) OF DURHAM (d. after 1129)
• SIMEON, JOSEPH JEROME, COMTE (1749–1842)

8 seq.; W. Bousset, Relig. d. Judentums (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Laws must be adjusted from time to time to meet changing needs, and new necessities naturally arose in the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

It is possible, therefore, that written See also:

• WORKS

Z. Lauterbach, ib., p. 614; W. Bacher, ib., xii. 19; S. Schechter, See also:

• HASTINGS
• HASTINGS, FRANCIS
• HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828)
• HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818)

3. Growth of the Mishnah and Gemara.—According to the traditional view the See also:

• CANON

3, 9), and Rabban Jol}anan b. Zakkai, founder of the seat of learning at See also:

• JAMNIA ('Ia,uvia or '1a /11161a)

See also:

• MEIR

His methods were not See also:

• FREE

Amoraer (See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

On the earlier stages, see Jew. Ency., viii. 6io, and Hastings' Diet. Bible, v. 61, See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

Abin (Abun), refute this view. The Babylonian Rabbah b. Nahmani (d. c. 330) had a dialectical ability which won him the title " uprooter of moun tains." His controversies with R. See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

The Two Talmuds.—The Palestinian recension of the Mishnah and Gemara is called " the Talmud of the See also:

• LAND

T. being Western Aram. (akin to Biblical Aram. and the Targums). Greek was well understood in cultured Palestine; hence the latter recension uses many Greek terms which it does not explain; whereas in the Bab. T. they are much less common, and are sometimes punningly interpreted.° The Pal. Tal. is the more concise, but it is remarkable for the numerous repetitions of the same passages; these are useful for the criticism of the text, and for the See also:

• LIGHT

68, Jew. Ency.,xii. 19. ° The Mishnah was first critically edited by W. H. See also:

• LOWE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED (1796-1869)
• LOWE, SIR HUDSON (1769-1844)

T., see Jew. Ency., vii. 313. Mishnah, but they differ from and are sometimes older than the Mishnic material, with which they sometimes conflict (so in particular as regards the rejected decisions of the school of Shammai). They usually begin: " our Masters taught," " it is taught," or " he taught," the verb tend (cf. Tannd'im, " teachers ") being employed (see further Jew. Ency., ii. 513 seq.). Parallel to the Mishnah is the Tosephtd, an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

9 and V. 9–11. The halakoth are fuller and sometimes older than the corresponding decisions in the Mishnah, and the treatment is generally more haggadic.l The method of making the discussions part of an interpretation of the Old Testament (halakic Midrash), as exemplified in the Tosephtd, is apparently older than the abstract and independent decisions of the Mishnah—which presuppose an acquaintance with the Pentateuchal basis—and, like the employment of narrative or historical Midrash (e.g. in the Pentateuch, See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

(See JEWS, §§ 44 sqq.) To the use of the Pal. Talmud by the Qaraites in their controversies with the Rabbis we owe the preservation of this recension, incomplete though it is. To the intolerance of Christians are no doubt due the rarity of old See also:

• MSS

S. Zuckermandef (See also:

• PASEWALK

Systematic abstracts of the legal parts of the Talmud were made by See also:

• ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

The lengthy history of the written and oral law thus reached its last stage in a work which grew out of the Talmud but had its roots in a more distant past. It was at the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

Modern dictionaries of the older Rabbinical writings have been made by J. See also:

• LEVY (Fr. levee, from lever, Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVY, AMY (1861–1889)
• LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL (1844– )

H. Segal's See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

L. Margolis (See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

One may, however, mention the translations in See also:

• ENGLISH

Schwab (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

87 sqq. it presupposes a knowledge which made commentaries a See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

See also:

• GEM (Lat. gemma, a bud,—from the root gen, meaning " to produce,"—or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek term is > d>os)
• GEM, ARTIFICIAL

See also:

• MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY (1843-1901)

See also:

• JACOBS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1764-1847)

See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

From age to age groups of laws were codified and See also:

• EXPANDED

Apart from the general interest of the literature for history and of its contents for various departments of research, the exegetical methods of the Talmud are especially instructive. There were rules of interpretation, and they give expression to one dominant idea: there is an See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

To supplement what has already been pointed out in the article MIDRASH, it may be noticed that the familiar See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

Here the effort was made to substantiate a practice, but the tradition was not unanimous; and it often happens that the Talmud preserves different traditions regarding the same teaching, different versions of it, or it is ascribed to different authorities (see Jew. Ency., xii. p. 15, col. 2). The fact that certain teaching is associated with a name may have no real significance for its antiquity, even as a law ascribed to the age of Moses—the recognized law-givermay prove to be of much earlier or of much later inception. This feature naturally complicates all questions affecting origin and originality, and cannot be ignored in any study of the Talmud in its bearing upon the New Testament.' Similar or related forms of interpretation and teaching are found in the Talmud, in Hellenistic Judaism, in the New Testament, in early Church Fathers and in Syriac writers. As regards the New Testament itself, the points of similarity are many and often important. It has been asserted that " the writings of recent Jewish critics have tended on the whole to confirm the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

26. But it is uncertain how far the doctrines of Judaism were influenced by Christianity, and it is even disputed whether the Talmud and Midrashim may be used to estimate Jewish thought ' There are many details in the Talmud which cannot be dated; if some are obviously contemporary, others find parallels in Ancient Babylonia, for example in the See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

Test. (Leipzig, 1905), Alte Test. im Lichte d. See also:

• ALLEN, BOG OF
• ALLEN, ETHAN (1739–1789)
• ALLEN, GRANT CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIEI, (1848–1899)
• ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850– )
• ALLEN, JOHN (1476–1534)
• ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (183o-1889)

See also:

• HELMET (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. helme, mod. heaume; the English word is " helm," as in O. Eng., Dutch and Ger.; all are from the Teutonic base hal-, pre-Teut. kal-, to cover; cf. Lat. celare, to hide, Eng. " hell," &c.)

Moreover, in endeavouring to See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

Weinstein, Zur See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

H. See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

165 sqq. ; also A. Wiinsche, Neue Beitrage z. Erldut. d. Evangelien (See also:

• GOTTINGEN

Quart. Rev., xvii. 171–183) ; Bousset, op. cit. ; Oesterley and Box, op. cit. (with C. G. See also:

• MONTEFIORE, SIR MOSES HAIM (1784–1885)

Essays (1909), pp. 163–192; C. G. Montefiore, Synoptic Gospels (1909) ; H. L.Strack; Jesus, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

A. Aptowitzer, Schriftwort in d. Rabb. Lit. (1906) ; I. Abrahams, Camb. Bibl. Essays, pp. 172 sqq. II tenacious or circumstantial, is not necessarily genuine, and that too in spite of the chain of authorities by which its antiquity or genuineness appeared to be confirmed. Implicit reliance can no longer be necessarily placed upon the reputed authorship or editorship of a work; yet, although many of the views of medieval Jews in this respect prove to be erroneous (e.g. on the authorship of the Zohar; see KABBALAH), they may sometimes preserve the recollection of a fact which only needs restatement (e.g. R.

Johanan as the editor of the Pal. Talmud). Finally, the Talmud comes at the end of a very lengthy development of Palestinian thought (see PALESTINE: History). It is in the See also:

• DIRECT

C. G. Montefiore, Liberal Judaism (London, 1903); Truth in Religion. (1906); I. Abrahams, Judaism (1907), and the essays of S. Schechter. The writer desires to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)