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TABERNACLES, FEAST OF

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Originally appearing in Volume V26, Page 336 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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TABERNACLES, FEAST OF , the autumn festival of the Israelites, beginning on the 15th of Tishri and celebrated by residing for the seven succeeding days in rustic booths (Heb. Sukkoth, in the See also:Vulgate Tabernacula, whence the See also:English name of the feast). Among the See also:Hebrews it was the third and See also:chief of the three See also:annual See also:pilgrimage festivals connected respectively with the harvesting ofthebarley (See also:Passover), of See also:wheat (See also:Pentecost), and of the See also:vine (Tabernacles). Hence it is referred to as " the Feast " See also:par excellence (Heb. Hehag, cf. Arab. See also:Hajj) even as See also:late as 2 Chron. vii. 9. Being of the nature of a pilgrimage feast the booths were temporary erections for the See also:accommodation of the pilgrims. But in See also:early Jewish tradition, in both Yahvist and Elohist See also:sources of the See also:Pentateuch (Exod. xxxiv. 22, See also:xxiii. 16) it is called simply the See also:Harvest Feast (A.V.

" Feast of Ingathering ") and is to be observed " at the end of the See also:

year," i.e. of the agricultural year. In Deut. xvi. 13 seq., it is termed the Feast of Tabernacles and is to be kept seven days after the produce of the threshing-See also:floor and winepress has been gathered in. In the Holiness See also:Code (Lev. xxiii. 39) it is to be kept for seven days after the first, the first of which is to be " a See also:sabbath," and the eighth " a sabbath " (possibly originally a lunar See also:quarter-See also:day): branches of four trees are to be taken. In the Priestly Code (Lev. xxiii. 33 seq.; Num. See also:xxix. 12–38) the first and eighth day are to be days of See also:holy See also:assembly, and in the latter passage elaborate details are given of the sacrifices to be presented, including a See also:series of bullocks, thirteen on the first day, twelve on the next, and so on down to seven on the seventh day. Only one is to be sacrificed on the concluding feast (Heb. rt1yereth) of the eighth day. The higher See also:criticism See also:sees, in these successive enactments of the various codes included in the Pentateuch (q.v.), a development in the See also:character of the festival. At first held at any of the See also:local shrines, such as See also:Gilgal, See also:Bethel, See also:Shiloh, as well as See also:Jerusalem, it was held at an indefinite date during the harvest in the fall of the year. Then with the concentration of the cultus at Jerusalem represented by See also:Deuteronomy, the celebration was restricted to the Judean See also:capital, and its duration fixed at seven days, though its date was still See also:left indeterminate.

This was fixed in the Priestly Code at the 15th of the seventh See also:

month, and an eighth day of See also:solemn assembly added after the return from the See also:exile. Against this hypothetical reconstruction is the fact that See also:Solomon appears to have selected the occasion of the feast for the See also:dedication of the See also:temple, and that it lasted, even in histime, seven days (1 See also:Kings viii. 2, 65). See also:Jeroboam arranged for a similar feast in the See also:northern See also:kingdom on the 15th day of the eighth month, " like unto the feast in See also:Judah" (ibid. xii. 32). The determination of a fixed date must therefore have been much earlier than Deuteronomy or the alleged See also:period of the Priestly Code. A pilgrimage feast must be fixed in date to ensure the simultaneous presence of the pilgrims. There are, besides, seeming references to the feast in the early prophets, as See also:Hosea xii. 9, See also:Amos v. 21, as well as in See also:Isaiah ix. 2 (Heb.). The concluding feast does not seem to refer to tabernacles per se, but to be distinct from it, as is shown by the break in the descending series of the sacrifices of bullocks as given in See also:Numbers.

In Jewish practice the concluding feast is not held in booths, and See also:

Maimonides (Moreh, 42) suggests that its See also:object was to give opportunity for final proceedings in assembly halls. The existence, therefore, of much variation in the practice of the festival in historic times is scarcely proved by the seeming See also:variations of the enactments concerning it in the Pentateuch. It is possible, however, that there may have been See also:differences of See also:custom in the carrying out of the feast. In Neh. xiii. 15 the trees whose branches were used for making the booths appear to differ from those mentioned in Lev. xxiii. 40, though in Jewish tradition the latter passage was taken to refer to the Lulab, or a See also:combination of twigs of See also:willow and See also:myrtle, with a See also:palm See also:branch, which, together with a citron, are held in the See also:hand during processions in the See also:synagogue. The See also:Sadducees and Karaites did not carry these in their hand, but used them as decorations of the booths. In the second temple there was a See also:water See also:libation every See also:morning of the festival, and on the evening of the first day the See also:great See also:golden See also:candelabrum was lit up and the men danced a See also:torch See also:dance around it (Mishnah, Sukkah, v. 2–4). It is reported by See also:Josephus that, when See also:Alexander Jannaeus, in the year 95 B.C., was acting as high-See also:priest in the temple on the Feast of Tabernacles, instead of pouring the water libation on the See also:altar, according to the Pharisaic custom, he poured it at his feet, giving rise to a See also:riot in which 6000 men are said to have lost their lives (See also:Ant. xii., xiii., 5; See also:Talmud, Sukkah, 48 b). The festival is certainly an agricultural one, and is so termed in the Pentateuch. Whether it was derived from the Canaanites, who had similar festivals (See also:Judges xxix.

27), is uncertain. All nations have similar harvest homes, especially with reference to the vintage feasts; as, for instance, the Athenian Oschophoria. The Syrians celebrated every three years a " See also:

Booth Festival." At the See also:Hindu Festival of Dasara, which lasted nine days from the new See also:moon of See also:October, tents made of See also:canvas or booths made of branches were erected in front of the temples. The Spartans had a nine days' festival termed See also:Carnea, during which they dwelt in pavilions and tents in memory of their old See also:camp See also:life (See also:Athenaeus, iv. 19). The Feast of Tabernacles is one of the few Jewish festivals described in classical writers. See also:Plutarch (See also:Symposium iv., vi. 2) compares Tabernacles with the Bacchic See also:rites. It was pre-eminently the period of exultation in See also:ancient Jewish rite, and the Mishnah declares that " He who has not seen the joy of the libations of Tabernacles has never in his life witnessed joy." So much importance was attributed to this festival that it was chosen as the occasion on which the See also:Law should be recited during the sabbatical year (Deut. xxxi. 9–12), and the Messianic See also:vision of See also:Zechariah xiv. 16 sees the remnant of all the nations coming up to Jerusalem to See also:worship the See also:Lord of Hosts, and to keep the Feast of Tabernacles. In later Jewish custom the one-year See also:cycle of See also:reading of sections from the Pentateuch ends on the concluding day of Tabernacles, which is therefore known as the Rejoicing of the Law (Simltat Torah).

The custom of dwelling, for See also:

part of the day at least, in booths, is still kept up by orthodox See also:Jews, who have temporary huts covered with branches erected in their courtyards, and those who are not in See also:possession of a See also:house with a backyard often go to pathetic extremes in See also:order to fulfil the law by making holes in See also:roofs, across which branches are placed. U. JA.) When the table became a fixed and permanent piece of See also:furniture the word " See also:board, " which had See also:long connoted it, See also:fell into disuse See also:save in an allusive sense, and its See also:place was taken by such phrases as " joyned table " and " framed table"—that is, jointed or framed together by a joiner; sometimes See also:people spoke of a " See also:standing " or " dormant " table. They were most frequently oblong, some two feet or two feet six inches wide, and the guests sat with their backs to the See also:wall, the other See also:side of the table being left See also:free for service. Sometimes they were used as side-tables, or furnished with a See also:cupboard beneath the board; they were supported on quadrangular legs or massive ends and feet full of See also:Gothic feeling, and were. several inches higher than the dining-table of the loth See also:century. Heavy stretchers or See also:foot-rails were fixed See also:close to the floor—for the avoidance, no doubt, of See also:draughts. See also:Oak was the usual material, but See also:elm, See also:cherry and other See also:woods were sometimes used. Soon the legs became bulbous, and were gadrooned or otherwise ornamented, and the See also:frame began to be carved. The introduction, before the 16th century closed, of the "See also:drawing table" marked the rapidity with which this piece of furniture was See also:developed. This was the forerunner of the " extending dining-table." Of the three leaves of which these tables were composed two were below the other; they See also:drew out and were supported by brackets, while the slab proper dropped to the same level. Somewhat later legs became excessively bulbous; 1 For mathematical tables see next See also:article. This use of the word comes from the See also:analogy of the laying out of See also:objects on an See also:ordinary table.this ugly See also:form gave place soon after the See also:middle of the 17th century to See also:baluster-shaped legs.

Hitherto tables had, generally speaking, been large and massive—little in the nature of what is now called the " occasional table " seems to have been provided until some years after the Restoration. About that See also:

time small tables of varying sizes and shapes, but still of substantial See also:weight, began to be made; many of them were flap-tables, which took up little See also:room when they were not in use. These, however, had been known at an earlier date. See also:Charles II. had not long been on the See also:throne when the See also:idea of the flap-table was amplified in a peculiarly graceful See also:fashion. Two flaps were provided instead of one, the result being the rather large See also:oval table of the " See also:gate-See also:leg " variety that has remained in use ever since, in which the open " gate " supports the flap. Towards the end of the reign tables began to have the graceful See also:twisted legs joined to the See also:flat See also:serpentine stretchers, which produced, almost for the first time in English furniture, a sense of lightness and gaiety. The See also:walnut tables of the end of the See also:Stuart period were often inlaid with See also:marquetry of great excellence. The number and variety of the tables in well-to-do households were now increasing rapidly, and the See also:console-table was imported from the See also:Continent contemporaneously with the See also:common use of the See also:mahogany side-table. As mahogany came into See also:general use, about the beginning of the second quarter of the 18th century, an enormous number of card-tables were made with See also:plain or cabriole legs and See also:spade or claw and See also:ball feet, often with lions' heads carved upon the knees; the See also:top folded up to See also:half its See also:size when open. The See also:Chippendale school introduced small tables with carved open-See also:work " galleries " See also:round the edges (to protect See also:china and other small objects), and clustered legs; Gothic forms and See also:Chinese frets were for a time fashionable. Later in this century, so prolific in new forms of furniture, tables were frequently made of See also:rosewood and satinwood; side-tables, often highly elaborate, adorned with swags and festoons and other classical motives, supported by termini or richly carved legs, were gilded and topped with See also:marble slabs or inlaid See also:wood. The See also:Pembroke table, of oblong form, with two semi-circular or oblong leaves, with edgings of marquetry, was a characteristic feature of late 18th-century English furniture, and still retains its popularity.

Then came the See also:

Empire period; the See also:taper was replaced by the round leg, rosewood See also:grew commoner, and See also:brass mountings the See also:rule. For illustrations see FURNITURE. to form a table of See also:prime numbers the See also:process is theoretically See also:simple and rapid, for we have only to range all the numbers in a See also:line and strike out every second number beginning from 2, every third beginning from 3, and so on, those that remain being primes. Even when the See also:tabular results are constructed separately, the method of differences or other methods connecting together different tabular results may afford valuable verifications. By having recourse to tables not only does the computer save time and labour, but he also obtains the certainty of accuracy. The invention of logarithms in 1614, followed immediately by the calculation of logarithmic tables, revolutionized all the methods of calculation; and the See also:original work performed by See also:Henry See also:Briggs and See also:Adrian Vlacq in calculating logarithms in the early part of the 17th century has in effect. formed a portion of every arithmetical operation that has since been carried out by means of logarithms. And not only has an incredible amount of labour been saved, 1 but a vast number of calculations and researches have been rendered practicable which otherwise would have been beyond human reach. The mathematical process that underlies the tabular method of obtaining a result may be indirect and complicated; for example, the logarithmic method would be quite unsuitable for the multiplication of two numbers if the logarithms had to be calculated specially for the purpose and were not already tabulated for use. The arrangement of a table on the See also:page and all typographical details—such as the shape of the figures, their spacing, the thickness and placing of the rules, the See also:colour and quality of the See also:paper, &c.—are of the highest importance, as the computer has to spend See also:hours with his eyes fixed upon the See also:book; and the efforts of See also:eye and See also:brain required in finding the right numbers amidst a See also:mass of figures on a page and in taking them out accurately, when the computer is tired as well as when he is fresh, are far more trying than the See also:mechanical See also:action of simple reading. Moreover, the trouble required by the computer to learn the use of a table need scarcely be considered; the important See also:matter is the time and labour saved by it after he has learned its use. In the following descriptions of tables an See also:attempt is made to give an See also:account of all those that a computer of the See also:present day is likely to use in carrying out arithmetical calculations. Tables See also:relating to ordinary arithmetical operations are first described, and afterwards an account is given of the most useful and least technical of the more strictly mathematical tables, such as factorials, See also:gamma functions, integrals, See also:Bessel's functions, &c.

Nearly all See also:

modern tables are stereotyped, and in giving their titles the accompanying date is either that of the original stereotyping or of the lirage in question. In tables that have passed through many See also:editions the date given is that of the edition described. A much See also:fuller account of general tables published previously to 1872, by the present writer, is contained in the See also:British Association See also:Report for 1873, pp. 1-175. Tables of Divisors (See also:Factor Tables) and Tables of Primes.—The existing factor tables extend to 10,000,000. In 1811 L. Chernac published at See also:Deventer his Cribrum arithmeticum, which gives all the prime divisors of every number not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to 1,020,000. In 1814–1817 J. C. See also:Burckhardt published at See also:Paris his Tables See also:des diviseurs, giving the least divisor of every number not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to 3,036,000. The second million was issued in 1814, the third in 1816, and the first in 1817. The corresponding tables for the seventh, eighth, and ninth millions were calculated by Z.

Dase and issued at See also:

Hamburg in 1862, 1863, and 1865. Dase died suddenly in 1861 during the progress of the work, and it was completed by H. Rosenberg. Dase's calculation was performed at the instigation of See also:Gauss, and he began at 6,00o,000 because the See also:Berlin See also:Academy was in possession of a See also:manuscript presented by Crelle extending Burckhardt's tables from 3,000,000 to 6,000,000. This manuscript was found on examination to be so inaccurate that the publication was not desirable, and accordingly the three intervening millions were calculated and published by See also:James See also:Glaisher, the Factor Table for the See also:Fourth i Referring to factor tables, J. H. See also:Lambert wrote (Supplementa tabularum, 1798, p. xv.): " Universalis finis talium tabularum est ut semel See also:pro See also:semper computetur quod saepius de novo computandum foret, et ut pro omni casu computetur quod in futurum pro quovis casu computatum desiderabitur." This applies ti all tables. Million appearing at See also:London in 1879, and those for the fifth and See also:sixth millions in 188o and 1883 respectively (all three millions stereotyped). The tenth million, though calculated by Dase and Rosenberg, has not been published. The nine See also:quarto volumes (Tables des diviseurs, Paris, 1814–1817; Factor Tables, London, 1879–1883; Factoren-Tafeln, Hamburg, 1862–1865) thus form one See also:uniform table, giving the least divisor of every number not divisible by 2, 3, or 5, from unity to nine millions. The arrangement of the results on the page, which is due to Burckhardt, is admirable for its clearness and condensation, the least factors for 9000 numbers being given on each page. The tabular portion of each million occupies 112 pages.

The first three millions were issued separately, and also See also:

bound in one See also:volume, but the other six millions are all See also:separate. Burckhardt began the publication of his tables with the second million instead of the first, as Chernac's factor table for the first million was already in existence. Burckhardt's first million does not supersede Chernac's, as the latter gives all the prime divisors of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to 1,020,000. It occupies 1020 pages, and Burckhardt found it very accurate; he detected only See also:thirty-eight errors, of which nine were due to the author, the remaining twenty-nine having been caused by the slipping of type in the See also:printing. The errata thus discovered are given in Burckhardt's first million. Other errata are contained in See also:Allan See also:Cunningham's paper referred to below. Burckhardt gives but a very brief account of the method by which he constructed his table; and the introduction to Dase's millions merely consists of Gauss's See also:letter suggesting their construction. The Introduction to the Fourth Million (pp. 52) contains a full account of the method of construction and a See also:history of factor tables, with a bibliography of writings on the subject. The Introduction (pp. 103) to the Sixth Million contains an enumeration of primes and a great number of tables relating to the See also:distribution of primes in the whole nine millions, portions of which had been published in the See also:Cambridge Philosophical Proceedings and elsewhere. A See also:complete See also:list of errors in the nine millions was published by J.

P. See also:

Gram (Acta mathematica, 1893, 17, p. 310). These errors, 141 in number, and which affect principally the second, third, eighth, and ninth millions, should be carefully corrected in all the tables. In 1909 the See also:Carnegie Institution of See also:Washington published a factor table by Prof. D. N. Lehmer which gives the least factor of all numbers not divisible by 2, 3, 5, or 7, up to ten millions. This table which covers a range of 21,000 numbers on a single page, was reproduced by See also:photography from a type-written copy of the author's original manuscript. The introduction contains a list of errata in the nine millions previously published, completely confirming Gram's list. The factor tables which have just been described greatly exceed both in extent and accuracy any others of the same See also:kind, the largest of which only reaches 408,000. This is the limit of Anton Felkel's Tafel alter einfachen Factoren (See also:Vienna, 1776), a remark-able and extremely rare book,' nearly all the copies having been destroyed.

Georg See also:

Vega (Tabulae, 1797) gave a table showing all the divisors of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to 102,000, followed by a list of primes from 102,000 to 400,313. In the earlier editions of this work there are several errors in the list, but these are no doubt corrected in J. A. Hiilsse's edition (184o). J. Salomon (Vienna, 1827) gives the least divisor of all numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5, up to 102,011, and B. See also:Goldberg (Primzahlen and Factoren-Tafeln, See also:Leipzig, 1862) gives all factors of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to 251,650. H. G. Kohler (Logarithmisch-trigonometrisches Handbuch, 1848 and subsequent editions) gives all factors of numbers not prime or divisible by 2, 3, 5, or 11 up to 21,525. See also:Peter See also:Barlow (Tables, 1814) and F. Schaller (Primzahlen-Tafel, See also:Weimar, 1855) give all factors of all numbers up to so,000.

Barlow's work also contains a list of primes up to 100,103. Both the factor table and the list of primes are omitted in the stereotyped (1840) reprint. Full lists of errata in Chernac (1811), Barlow (1814), Hiilsse's Vega (1840), Kohler (1848), Schaller (1855), and Goldberg (1862) are contained in a paper by Allan Cunningham (See also:

Mess. of Math., 1904, 34, p. 24; 1905, 35, p. 24). V. A. Le Besgue (Tables diverses pour la decomposition des nombres, Paris, 1864) gives in a table of twenty pages, the least factor of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to 115,500. In See also:Rees's Cyclopaedia (1819), article " Prime Numbers," there is a list of primes to 217,219 arranged in decades. The Fourth Million (1879) contains a list of primes up to 30,341. The fourth edition of the Logarithmic Tables (London, and See also:Ithaca, N.Y., 1893) of G. W.

See also:

Jones of Cornell University contains a table of all the factors of numbers not divisible by 2 or 5 up to 20,000. In the See also:case of primes the ten-place See also:logarithm is given. This table does not occur in the third edition (Ithaca, N.Y., 1891). On the first page of the Second Million Burckhardt gives the first nine multiples of the primes to 1423; and a smaller table of the same kind, extending only to 313, occurs in Lambert's Supplementa (1798). Several papers contain lists of high primes (i.e. beyond the range of the For See also:information about it, see a paper on " Factor Tables," in Camb. Phil. Proc. (1878), iii. 99–138, or the Introduction to the Fourth Million. factor tables). Among these may be mentioned two, by Allan Cunningham and H. J.

Woodall jointly, in the Mess. of Math., 1902, 31, p. X65; 1905, 34, p. 72. See also the papers on factorizations of high numbers referred to under Tables relating to the Theory of Number;. The Vienna Academy possesses the manuscript of an immense factor table extending to 100,000,000, constructed many years ago by J. P. Kulik (1793–1863) (see Ency. math. Wiss., 1900-1904, i. 952, and Lehmer's Factor Table, p. ix.). Multiplication Tables.—A multiplication table is usually of See also:

double entry, the two arguments being the two factors; when so arranged it is frequently called a See also:Pythagorean table. The largest and most useful work is A. L.

Crelle's Rechentafeln (Bremiker's edition, 1857, stereotyped; many subsequent editions with See also:

German, See also:French, and English See also:title-pages), which gives in one volume all the products up to I000Xwoo, so arranged that all the multiples of any one number appear on the same page. The original edition was publishect in 1820 and consisted of two thick See also:octavo volumes. The second (stereotyped) edition is a convenient See also:folio volume of 450 pages.' In 1908 an entirely new edition, edited by O. Seeliger, was published in which the multiples of to, 20, ..., 990 (omitted in previous editions) are included. This adds 5o pages to the volume, but removes what has been a great See also:drawback to the use of the tables. Other improvements are that the tables are divided off horizontally and vertically by lines and spaces, and that, for calculations in which the last two figures are rejected, a See also:mark has been placed to show when the last figure retained should be increased. Two other tables of the same extent (woo X woo), but more condensed in arrangement, are H. C. See also:Schmidt's Zahlenbuch (See also:Aschersleben, 1896), and A. Henselin's Rechentafel (Berlin, 1897). An See also:anonymous table, published at See also:Oldenburg in 1860, gives products up to 500X509, and M. Cordier, Le Multiplicateur de trois cents carres (Paris, 1872), gives a multiplication table to 300X300 (intended for commercial use).

In both these See also:

works the product is printed in full. The four following tables are for the multiplication of a number by a single See also:digit. (I) A. L. Crelle, Erleichterungstafel fiir jeden, der zu rechnen See also:hat (Berlin, 1836), a work extending to woo pages, gives the product of a number of seven figures by a single digit, by means of a double operation of entry. Each page is divided into two tables: for example, to multiply 9382477 by 7 we turn to page 825, and enter the right-hand table at line 77, See also:column 7, where we find 77339; we then enter the left-hand table on the same page at line 93, column 7, and find 656, so that the product required is 65677339. (2) C. A. See also:Bretschneider, Produktentafel (Hamburg and See also:Gotha, 1841), is somewhat similar to Crelle's table, but smaller, the number of figures in the multiplicand being five instead of seven. (3) In S. L. Laundy, A Table of Products (London, 1865), the product of any five-figure number by a single digit is given by a double arrangement.

The extent of the table is the same as that of Bretschneider's, as also is the principle, but the arrangement is different, Laundy's table occupying only to pages and Bretschneider's 99 pages. (4) G. Diakow's Multiplikations-Tabelle (St See also:

Petersburg, 1897) is of the same extent as Bretschneider's table but occupies woo pages. Among tables extending to IooXl000 (i.e. giving the products of two figures by three) may he mentioned C. A. Mailer's Multiplications-Tabellen (See also:Karlsruhe, 1891). The tables of L. See also:Zimmermann (Rechentafeln, Liebenwerda, 1896) and J. Riem (Rechentabellen fiir Multiplication, See also:Basel, 1897) extend to IooXio,000. In a folio volume of 500 pages J. See also:Peters (Rechentafeln See also:fur Multiplikation and See also:Division mit e'n- bis viersteliigen Zahlen, Berlin, 1909) gives products of four figures by two. The entry is by the last three figures of the multiplicand, and there are 2000 products on each page.

Among earlier tables, the See also:

interest of which is mainly See also:historical, mention may be made of C. See also:Hutton's Table of Products and See also:Powers of Numbers (London, 1781), which contains a table up to IooXl000, and J. P. Gruson's Grosses Einmaleins von Eins bis Hunderttausend (Berlin, 1799)—a table of products up to 9 X10,000. The author's intention was to extend it to 100,000, but only the first part was published. In this book there is no condensation or double arrangement; the pages are very large, each containing 125 lines. Quarter-Squares.—Multiplication may be performed by means of a table of single entry in the manner indicated by the See also:formula- ab = 1(a +b)2-4 (a-b)2. Only one other multiplication table of the same extent as Crelle's had appeared previously, viz. Herwart von Hohenburg's Tabulae arithmeticaa irporGacaipsos n universales (See also:Munich, 1610), a huge folio volume of more than a thousand pages. It appears from a See also:correspondence between See also:Kepler and von Hohenburg, which took place at the end of 1608, that the latter used his table when in manuscript for the performance of multiplications in general, and that the occurrence of the word prosthaphaeresis on the title is due to Kepler, who pointed out that by means of the table spherical triangles could be solved more easily than by Wittich's prosthaphaeresis. The invention of logarithms four years later afforded another means of performing multiplications, and von Hohenburg's work never became generally known. On the method of prosthaphaeresis, see See also:NAPIER, See also:JOHN, and on von Hohenburg's table, see a paper " On multiplication by a Table of Single Entry," Phil.

Mag., 1878, See also:

ser. v., 6, p. 331. Thus with a table of quarter-squares we can multiply together any two numbers by subtracting the quarter-square of their difference from the quarter-square of their sum. The largest table of quarter-squares is J. Blater's Table of Quarter-Squares of all whole numbers from z to 200,000 (London, 1888),2 which gives quarter-squares of every number up to 200,000 and thus yields directly the product of any two five-figure numbers. This See also:fine table is well printed and arranged. Previous to its publication the largest table was S. L. Laundy's Table of Quarter-Squares of all numbers up to See also:ioo,000 (London, 1856), which is of only half the extent, and therefore is only directly available when the sum of the two numbers to be multiplied does not exceed ioo,000. Smaller works are J. J. Centnerschwer, Neuerfundene Multiplications- and Quadrat-Tafeln (Berlin, 1825), which extends to 20,000, and J.

M. Merpaut, Tables arithmonomiques (See also:

Vannes, 1832), which extends to 40,000. In Merpaut's work the quarter-square is termed the " arithmone." L. J. See also:Ludolf, who published in 1690 a table of squares to Ioo,o00 (see next See also:paragraph), explains in his introduction how his table may be used to effect multiplications by means of the above formula; but the earliest book on quarter-squares is A. Voisin, Tables des multiplications, ou logarithmes des nombres entiers depuis t jusqu'd 20,000 (Paris, 1817). By a logarithm Voisin means a quarter-square, i.e. he calls a a See also:root and '-,See also:a2 its logarithm. On the subject of quarter-squares, &c., see Phil. Mag. [v.] 6, p. 331. Squares, Cubes, &'c., and Square Roots and See also:Cube Roots.—The most convenient table for general use is P.

Barlow's Tables (Useful Know-ledge Society, London, from the stereotyped plates of 1840), which gives squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots, and reciprocals to 10,000. These tables also occur in the original edition of 1814. The largest table of squares and cubes is J. P. Kulik, Tafeln der Quadrat- and Kubik-Zahlen (Leipzig, 1848), which gives both as far as 700,000. Blater's table of quarter-squares already mentioned gives squares of numbers up to Ioo,000 by dividing the number by 2; and up to 200,000 by multiplying the tabular result by 4. Two early tables give squares as far as Ioo,000, viz. Maginus, Tabula tetragonica (See also:

Venice, 1592), and Ludolf, Tetragonometria tabularia (See also:Amsterdam, 169o); G. A. See also:Jahn, Tafel der Quadratund Kubikwurzeln (Leipzig, 1839), gives squares to 27,000, cubes to 24,00c, and square and cube roots to 25,500, at first to fourteen decimals and above Imo to five. E. G6lin (Recueil de tables numeriques, Huy, 1894) gives square roots (to 15 ,places) and cube roots (to to places) of numbers up to See also:loo.

C. Hutton, Tables of Products and Powers of Numbers (London, 1781), gives squares up to 25;400, cubes to 70,000, and the first ten powers of the first See also:

hundred numbers. P. Barlow, Mathematical Tables (original edition, 1814), gives the first ten powers of the first hundred numbers. The first nine or ten powers are given in Vega, Tabulae (1797), and in Hi lsse's edition of the same (1840), in Kohler, Handbuch (1848), and in other collections. C. F. Faa de See also:Bruno, Calcul des erreurs (Paris, 1869), and J. H. T. See also:Muller, Vierstellige Logarithmen (1844), give squares for use in connexion with the method of least squares. Four-place tables of squares are frequently given in five- and four-figure collections of tables.

Small tables often occur in books intended for See also:

engineers and See also:practical men. S. M. Drach (Messenger of Math., 1878, 7, p. 87) has given to 33 places the cube roots (and the cube roots of the squares) of primes up to 127. Small tables of powers of 2, 3, 5, 7 occur in various collections. In Vega's Tabulae (1797, and the subsequent editions, including Hiilsse's) the powers of 2, 3, 5 as far as the 45th, 36th, and 27th respectively are given; they also occur in Kohler's Hand-See also:buck (1848). The first 25 powers of 2, 3, 5, 7 are given in Salomon, Logarithmische Tafeln (1827). W. Shanks, Rectification of the Circle (1853), gives every 12th See also:power of 2 up to 2721. Avery valuable paper (" Power-tables, Errata ") published by Allan Cunningham in the Messenger of Math., 1906, 35, p. 13, contains the results of a careful examination of 27 tables containing powers higher than the cube, with lists of errata found in each.

Before using any power table this list should be consulted, not only in order to correct the errata, but for the See also:

sake of references and general information in regard to such tables. In an appendix (p. 23) Cunningham gives errata in the tables of squares and cubes of Barlow (1814), Jahn (1839), and Kulik (1848). Triangular Numbers.—E. de Joncourt, De natura et praeciaro usu simplicissimae speciei numerorum trigonalium (The See also:Hague, 1762), contains a table of triangular numbers up to 20,000: viz. In(n+1) is given for all numbers from n=1 to 20,000. The table occupies 224 pages. Reciprocals.—P. Barlow's Tables (1814 and 1840) give reciprocals up to 10,000 to 9 or 10 places; and a table of ten times this extent is given by W. H. Oakes, Table of the Reciprocals of Numbers from z to 100,000 (London, 1865). This table gives seven figures of the reciprocal, and is arranged like a table of seven-figure logarithms, differences being added at the side of the page. The reciprocal 2 The actual place of publication (with a German title, &c.) is Vienna.

The copies with an English title, &c., were issued by Triibner; and those with a French title, &c., by Gauthier-See also:

Villars. All See also:bear the date 1888. of a number of five figures is therefore taken out at once, and two more figures may be interpolated for as in logarithms. R. Picarte, La Division reduite a une addition (Paris, 1861), gives to ten significant figures the reciprocals of the numbers from 10,000 to too,000, and also the first nine multiples of these reciprocals. J. C. Houzeau gives the reciprocals of numbers up to too to 20 places and their first nine multiples to 12 places in the Bulletin of the See also:Brussels Academy, 1875, 40, p. 107. E. G61in (Recueil de tables numeriques, Huy, 1894) gives reciprocals of numbers to woo to to places. Tables for the Expression of Vulgar Fractions as Decimals.—Tables of this kind have been given by Wucherer, Goodwyn and Gauss.

W. F. Wucherer, Beytrage zum allgemeinern Gebrauch der Decimalbruche (Carlsruhe, 1796), gives the decimal fractions (to 5 places) for all vulgar fractions whose numerator and denominator are each less than 50 and prime to one another, arranged according to denominators. The most extensive and elaborate tables that have been published are contained in Henry Goodwyn's First See also:

Centenary of Tables of all Decimal Quotients (London, 1816), A Tabular Series of Decimal Quotients (1823), and A Table of the Circles arising from the Division of a Unit or any other Whole Number by all the Integers from 1 to 1024 (1823). The Tabular Series (1823), which occupies 153 pages, gives to 8 places the decimal corresponding to every vulgar fraction less than g,81 whose numerator and denominator do not surpass 1000. The arguments are not arranged according to their numerators or denominators, but according to their magnitude, so that the tabular results exhibit a steady increase from •oo1 (= ho) o) to '09989909 (=XI). The author intended the table to include all fractions whose numerator and denominator were each less than 1000, but no more was ever published. The Table of Circles (1823) gives all the periods of the circulating decimals that can arise from the division of any integer by another integer less than 1024. Thus for 13 we find •676923 and •i53846, which are the only periods in which a fraction whose denominator is 13 can circulate. The table occupies 107 pages, some of the periods being of course very long (e.g., for 1021 the period contains 1020 figures). The First Centenary (1816) gives the complete periods of the reciprocals of the numbers from t to too. Goodwyn's tables are very scarce, but as they are nearly unique of their kind they deserve See also:special See also:notice.

A second edition of the First Centenary was issued in 1818 with the addition of some of the Tabular Series, the numerator not exceeding 5o and the denominator not exceeding too. A See also:

posthumous table of C. F. Gauss's, entitled " Tafel zur Verwandlung gemeiner B1-ache mit Nennern aus dem ersten Tausend in Decimalbruche," occurs in vol. ii. pp. 412–434 of his Gesammelte Werke (See also:Gottingen, 1863), and resembles Goodwyn's Table of Circles. On this subject see a paper "On Circulating Decimals, with special reference to Henry Goodwyn's Table of Circles and Tabular Series of Decimal Quotients," in See also:Comb. Phil. Proc., 1878, 3, p. 185, where is also given a table of the numbers of digits in the periods of fractions corresponding to denominators prime to to from I to 1024 obtained by counting from Goodwyn's table. See also under Circulating Decimals (below). Sexagesimal and Sexcentenary Tables.—Originally all calculations were sexagesimal; and the See also:relics of the See also:system still exist in the division of the degree into 6o minutes and the See also:minute into 6o seconds. To facilitate See also:interpolation, therefore, in trigonometrical and other tables the following large sexagesimal tables were constructed.

John See also:

Bernoulli, A Sexcentenary Table (London, 1779), gives at once the fourth See also:term of any proportion of which the first term is 600" and each of the other two is less than 600"; the table is of double entry, and may be described as giving the value of xy/600 correct to tenths of a second, x and y each containing a number of seconds less than 600. See also:Michael See also:Taylor, A Sexagesimal Table (London, 178o), exhibits at sight the fourth term of any proportion where the first term is 6o minutes, the second any number of minutes less than 6o, and the third any number of minutes and seconds under 6o minutes; there is also another table in which the third term is any See also:absolute number under woo. Not much use seems to have been made of these tables, both of which were published by the Commissioners of See also:Longitude. Small tables for the See also:conversion of sexagesimals into centesimals and See also:vice versa are given in a few collections, such as Hulsse's edition of Vega. H. See also:Schubert's Funfstellige Tafeln and Gegentafeln (Leipzig, 1897) contains a sexagesimal table giving xy/6o for x=t to 59 and y =1 to 15o. Trigonometrical Tables (Natural).—Peter Apian published 'in 1533 a table of sines with the See also:radius divided decimally. The first complete See also:canon giving all the six ratios of the sides of a right-angled triangle is due to See also:Rheticus (1551), who also introduced the semiquadrantal arrangement. Rheticus's canon was calculated for every ten minutes to 7 places, and See also:Vieta extended it to every minute (1579). In 1554 See also:Reinhold published a table of tangents to every minute. The first complete canon published in See also:England was by See also:Thomas Blundeville (1594), although a table of sines had appeared four years earlier. See also:Regiomontanus called his table of tangents (or rather cotangents) tabula foecunda on account of its great use; and till the introduction of the word " tangent " by Thomas See also:Finck (Geometriae rotundi libri XI V., Basel, 1583) a table of tangents was called a tabula foecunda orcanon foecundus.

Besides " tangent," Finck also introduced the word " secant," the table of secants having previously been called tabula benefica by Maurolycus (1558) and tabula foecundissima by Vieta. By far the greatest computer of pure trigonometrical tables is See also:

George See also:Joachim Rheticus, whose work has never been superseded. His celebrated ten-decimal canon, the See also:Opus palatinum, was published by See also:Valentine See also:Otho at See also:Neustadt in 1596, and in 1613 his fifteen-decimal table of sines by Pitiscus at See also:Frankfort under the title See also:Thesaurus mathematicus. The Opus palatinum contains a complete ten-decimal trigonometrical canon for every ten seconds of the quadrant, semiquadrantally arranged, with differences for all the tabular results throughout. Sines, cosines, and secants are given on the left-hand pages in columns headed respectively "Perpend'culum," " Basis," " Hypotenusa," and on the right-hand pages appear tangents, cosecants, and cotangents in columns headed respectively " Perpendiculum," " Hypotenusa," " Basis." At his See also:death Rheticus left the canon nearly complete, and the See also:trigonometry was finished and the whole edited by Valentine Otho; it was named in See also:honour of the elector See also:palatine See also:Frederick IV., who See also:bore the expense of publication. The Thesaurus of 1613 gives natural sines for every ten seconds throughout the quadrant, to 15 places, semiquadrantally arranged, with first, second, and third differences. Natural sines are also given for every second from o° to I° and from 89° to 90°, to 15 places, with first and second differences. The See also:rescue of the manuscript of this work by Pitiscus forms a striking See also:episode in the history of mathematical tables. The alterations and emendations in the earlier part of the corrected edition of the Opus palatinum were made by Pitiscus, who had his suspicions that Rheticus had himself calculated a ten-second table of sines to 15 decimal places; but it could not be found. Eventually the lost canon was discovered amongst the papers of Rheticus which had passed from Otho to James Christmann on the death of the former. Amongst these Pitiscus found (I) the ten-second table of sines to 15 places, with first, second, and third differences (printed in the Thesaurus) ; (2) sines for every second of the first and last degrees of the quadrant, also to 15 places, with first and second differences; (3) the commencement of a canon of tangents and secants, to the same number of decimal places, for every ten seconds, with first and second differences; (4) a complete minute canon of sines, tangents, and secants, also to 15 decimal places. This list, taken in connexion with the Opus palatinum, gives an idea of the enormous labours under-taken by Rheticus; his tables not only remain to this day the ultimate authorities but formed the data from which Vlacq calculated his logarithmic canon.

Pitiscus says that for twelve years Rheticus constantly had computers at work. A history of trigonometrical tables by Charles Hutton was pre-fixed to all the early editions of his Tables of Logarithms, and forms See also:

Tract xix. of his Mathematical Tracts, vol. i. p. 278, 1812. A See also:good See also:deal of See also:bibliographical information about the Opus palatinum and earlier trigonometrical tables is given in A. De See also:Morgan's article " Tables ' in the English Cyclopaedia. The invention of logarithms the year after the publication of Rheticus's volume by Pitiscus changed all the methods of calculation; and it is worthy of See also:note that John Napier's original table of 1614 was a logarithmic canon of sines and not a table of the logarithms of numbers. The logarithmic canon at once superseded the natural canon; and since Pitiscus's time no really extensive table of pure trigonometrical functions has appeared. In See also:recent years the employment of calculating See also:machines has revived the use of tables of natural trigonometrical functions, it being found convenient for some purposes to employ such a See also:machine in connexion with a natural canon instead of using a logarithmic canon. A. Junge's Tafel der wirklichen See also:Lange der Sinus and Cosinus (Leipzig, 1864) was published with this object. It gives natural sines and cosines for every ten seconds of the quadrant to 6 places. F.

M. Clouth, Tables pour le calcul des coordonnees goniometriques (See also:

Mainz, n.d.), gives natural sines and cosines (to 6 places) and their first nine multiples (to 4 places) for every centesimal minute of the quadrant. Tables of natural functions occur in many collections, the natural and logarithmic values being sometimes given on opposite pages, sometimes side by side on the same page. The following works contain tables of trigonometrical functions other than sines, cosines, and tangents. J. Pasquich, Tabuiae logarithmico-trigonometricae (Leipzig, 1817), contains a table of sin2x, cos2x, tan2x, cot2x from x= I ° to 45 at intervals of 1' to 5 places. J. See also:Andrew, Astronomical and Nautical Tables (London, 18o5), contains a table of " squares of natural semichords,° i.e. of sin22x from x=o° to 12o° at intervals of to" to 7 places. This table was greatly extended by See also:Major-General Hannyngton in his Haversines, Natural and Logarithmic, used in computing Lunar Distances for the Nautical See also:Almanac (London, 1876). The name haversine," frequently used in works upon See also:navigation, is an See also:abbreviation of half versed sine "; viz., the haversine of x is equal to 2(1–See also:cos x), that is, to sin22x. The table gives logarithmic haversines for every 15" from o° to 18o°, and natural haversines for every to" from o° to 18o°, to 7 places, except near the beginnng, where the logarithms are given to only 5 or 6 places. It occupies 327 folio pages, and was suggested by Andrew's work, a copy of which by See also:chance fell into Hannyngton's hands Hannyngton recomputed the whole of it by a partly mechanical method, a combination of two arithmometers being employed.

A table of haversines is useful for the See also:

solution of spherical triangles when two sides and the included See also:angle are given, and in other problems in spherical trigonometry. Andrew's original table seems to have attracted very little notice. Hannyngton's was printed, on the recommendation of the See also:superintendent of the Nautical Almanac See also:office, at the public cost. Before the calculation of Hannyngton's table R. Farley's Natural Versed Sines (London, 1856) was used in the Nautical Almanac office in computing lunar distances. This fine table contains natural versed sines from 0° to 125° at intervals of to" to 7 places, with proportional parts, and See also:log versed sines from o° to 135° at intervals of 15" to 7 places. The arguments are also given in time. The manuscript was used in the office for twenty-five years before it was printed. See also:Traverse tables, which occur in most collections of navigation tables, contain multiples of sines and cosines. Common or Briggian Logarithms of Numbers and Trigonometrical Ratios.—For an account of the invention and history of logarithms, see LOGARITHM. The following are the fundamental works which contain the results of the original calculations of logarithms of numbers and trigonometrical ratios:—Briggs, Arithmetica logarithmica (London, 1624), logarithms of numbers from I to 20,000 and from 90,000 to 100,000 to 14 places, with inter-script differences; Vlacq, Arithmetica logarithmica (See also:Gouda, 1628, also an English edition, London, 1631, the tables being the same), ten-figure logarithms of numbers from t to 100,000, with differences, also log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the quad-rant to 10 places, with interscript differences; Vlacq, Trigonometria artificialis (Gouda, 1633), log sines and tangents to every ten seconds of the quadrant to 10 places, with differences, and ten-figure logarithms of numbers up to 20,000, with differences; Briggs, Trigonometria Britannica (London, 1633), natural sines to 15 places, tangents and secants to 10 places, log sines to 14 places, and tangents to 10 places, at intervals of a hundredth of a degree from 0° to 45°, with interscript differences for all the functions. In 1794 Vega reprinted at Leipzig Vlacq's two works in a single folio volume, Thesaurus logarithmorum completus.

The arrangement of the table of logarithms of numbers is more compendious than in Vlacq, being similar to that of an ordinary seven-figure table, but it is not so convenient, as mistakes in taking out the differences are more liable to occur. The trigonometrical canon gives log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from 0° to 2° at intervals of one second, to to places, without differences, and for the See also:

rest of the quadrant at intervals of ten seconds. The trigonometrical canon is not wholly reprinted from the Trigonometria artificialis, as the logarithms for every second of the first two degrees, which do not occur in Vlacq, were 'calculated for the work by See also:Lieutenant Dorfmund. Vega devoted great See also:attention to the detection of errors in Vlacq's logarithms of numbers, and has given several important errata lists. F. Lefort (Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris, vol. iv.) has given a full errata list in Vlacq's and Vega's logarithms of numbers, obtained by comparison with the great French manuscript Tables du See also:cadastre (see LOGARITHM; comp. also Monthly Notices R.A.S., 32, pp. 255, 288; 33, p. 330; 34, p. 447). Vega seems not to have bestowed on the trigonometrical canon anything like the care that he devoted to the logarithms of numbers, as Gauss' estimates the See also:total number of last-figure errors at from 31,983 to 47,746, most of them only amounting to a unit, but some to as much as 3 or 4. A copy of Vlacq's Arithmetica logarithmica (1628 or 1631), with the errors in numbers, logarithms, and differences corrected, is still the best table for a calculator who has to perform work requiring ten-figure logarithms of numbers, but the book is not easy to pro-cure, and Vega's Thesaurus has the See also:advantage of having log sines, &c., in the same volume. The latter work also has been made more accessible by a photographic See also:reproduction by the See also:Italian See also:government (Riproduzione fotozincografica dell' Istituto Geografico tare, See also:Florence, 1896).

In 1897 Max Edler von See also:

Leber published tables for facilitating interpolations in Vega's Thesaurus (Tabularum ad faciliorem et breviorem in Georgii Vegae " Thesauri logarithmorum " magnis canonibus interpolationis computationem utilium Trios, Vienna, 1897). The object of these tables is to take account of second differences. Prefixed to the tables is a long list of errors in the Thesaurus, occupying twelve pages. From an examination of the tabular results in the trigonometrical canon corresponding to io6o angles von Leber estimates that out of the 90,720 tabular results 40,396 are in See also:error by = t, 2793 by t2, and 191 by t3. Thus his estimated value of the total number of last-figure errors is 43,326, which is in accordance with Gauss's estimate. A table of ten-figure logarithms of numbers up to 100,009, the result of a new calculation, was published in the Report of the U.S. See also:Coast and See also:Geodetic Survey for 1895–6 (appendix 12, pp. 395–722) by W. W. Duffield, ' See his " Einige Bemerkungen zu Vega's Thesaurus logarithmorum," in Astronomische Nachrichten for 1851 (reprinted in his Werke, vol. um. pp. 257–64); also Monthly Notices R.A.S., 33, p. 440.superintendent of the survey.

The table was compared with Vega's Thesaurus before publication. S. Pineto's Tables de logarithmes vulgaires a See also:

dix decimales, construites d'apres un nouveau mode (St Petersburg, 1871), though a tract of only 8o pages, may be usefully employed when Vlacq and Vega are unprocurable. Pineto's work consists of three tables: the first, or See also:auxiliary table, contains a series of factors by which the numbers whose logarithms are required are to be multiplied to bring them within the range of table 2; it also gives the logarithms of the reciprocals of these factors to 12 places Table t merely gives logarithms to moo to 10 places. Table 2 gives logarithms from 1,000,000 to 1,011.000, with proportional parts to hundredths. The mode of using these tables is as follows. If the logarithm cannot be taken out directly from table 2, a factor M is found from the auxiliary table by which the number must be multiplied to bring it within the range of table 2 Then the logarithm can be taken out, and, to neutralize the effect of the multiplication, so far as the result is concerned, log 1/M must be added; this quantity is therefore given in an adjoining column to M in the auxiliary table. A similar See also:procedure gives the number answering to any logarithm, another factor (approximately the reciprocal of M) being given, so that in both cases multiplication is used. The laborious part of the work is the multiplication by M; but this is somewhat compensated for by the ease with which, by means of the proportional parts, the logarithm is taken out. The factors are 300 in number, and are chosen so as to minimize the labour, only 25 of the 300 consisting of three figures all different and not involving o or 1. The principle of multiplying by a factor which is subsequently cancelled by subtracting its logarithm is used also in a tract, containing only ten pages, published by A. See also:Namur and P.

See also:

Mansion at Brussels in 1877 under the title Tables de logarithmes a 12 decimales jusqu'a 434 milliards. Here a table is given of logarithms of numbers near to 434,294, and other numbers are brought within the range of the table by multiplication by one or two factors. The logarithms of the numbers near to 434,294 are selected for tabulation because their differences commence with the figures too . . . and the presence of the zeros in the difference renders the interpolation easy. The tables of S. Gundelfinger and A. Nell (Tafeln zur Berechnung neunstelliger Logarithmen, See also:Darmstadt, 1891) afford an easy means of obtaining nine-figure logarithms, though of course they are far less convenient than a nine-figure table itself. The method in effect consists in the use of Gaussian logarithms, viz., if N=n+p, log N=log n+log (I+p/n)=log n+B where B is log (1 + See also:pin) to See also:argument A=log p–log n. The tables give log n from it= loon to n= lo,000, and values of B for argument A.2 Until 1891, when the eight-decimal tables, referred to further on, were published by the French government, the computer who could not obtain sufficiently accurate results from seven-figure logarithms was obliged to have recourse to ten-figure tables, for, with only one exception, there existed no tables giving eight or nine figures. This exception is John See also:Newton's Trigonometria Britannica (London, 1658), which gives logarithms of numbers to 100,000 to 8 places, and also log sines and tangents for every centesimal minute (i.e. the nine-thousandth part of a right angle), and also log sines and tangents for the first three degrees of the quadrant to 5 places, the See also:interval being the one-thousandth part of a degree. This table is also remarkable for giving the logarithms of the differences instead of the actual differences. The arrangement of the page now universal in seven-figure tables—with the fifth figures See also:running horizontally along the top line of the page—is due to John Newton.

As a rule seven-figure logarithms of numbers are not published separately, most tables of logarithms containing both the logarithms of numbers and a trigonometrical canon. See also:

Babbage's and Sang's logarithms are exceptional and give logarithms of numbers only. C. Babbage, Table of the Logarithms of the Natural Numbers from t to io8,o00 (London, stereotyped in 1827; there are many tirages of later See also:dates), is the best for ordinary use. Great pains were taken to get the maximum of clearness. The See also:change of figure in the middle of the See also:block of numbers is marked by a change of type in the fourth figure, which (with the See also:sole exception of the See also:asterisk) is probably the best method that has been used. Copies of the book were printed on paper of different See also:colours—yellow, See also:brown, See also:green, &c.—as it was considered that See also:black on a See also:white ground was a fatiguing combination for the eye. The tables were also issued with title-pages and introductions in other See also:languages. In 1871 E. Sang published A New Table of Seven-place Logarithms of all Numbers from 20,000 to 200,000 (London). In an ordinary table extending from 10,000 to 100,000 the differences near the beginning are so numerous that the proportional parts are either very crowded or some of them omitted; by making the table extend from 20,000 to 200,000 instead of from 10,000 to 100,000 the differences are halved in magnitude, while there are only one-fourth as many in a page. There is also greater accuracy.

A 2 A seven-figure table of the same kind is contained in S. Gundelfinger's Sechsstellige Gaussische and siebenstellige gemeine Logarithmen (Leipzig, 1902). further peculiarity of this table is that multiples of the differences, instead of proportional parts, are given at the side of the page. Typographically the table is exceptional, as there are no rules, the numbers being separated from the logarithms by reversed commas —a doubtful advantage. This work was to a great extent the result of an original calculation; see Trans. See also:

Roy. See also:Soc. Edin., 1871, 26. Sang proposed to publish a nine-figure table from 1 to 1,000,000, but the requisite support was not obtained. Various papers of Sang's relating to his logarithmic calculations will be found in the Proc. Roy. Soc.

Edin. subsequent to1872. Reference should here be made to See also:

Abraham See also:Sharp's table of logarithms of numbers from 1 to loo and of primes from 100 to 1100 to 61 places, also of numbers from 999,990 to 1,000,010 to 63 places. These first appeared in See also:Geometry Improv'd . . by A. S. Philomath (London, 1717). They have been republished in See also:Sherwin's, Callet's, and the earlier editions of Hutton's tables. H. M. Parkhurst, Astronomical Tables (New See also:York, 1871), gives logarithms of numbers from 1 to 109 to 102 places.' In many seven-figure tables of logarithms of numbers the values of S and T are given at the top of the page, with V, the variation of each, for the purpose of deducing log sines and tangents. S and T denote log (See also:sin x/x) and log (tan x/x) respectively, the argument being the number of seconds denoted by certain numbers (some-times only the first, sometimes every tenth) in the number column on each page. Thus, in Callet's tables, on the page on which the first number is 67200, S=log (sin 6720"/6720) and T=log (tan 6720"/6720), while the V's are the variations of each for Io".

To find, for example, log sin I °52'12"•7, or log sin 6732"•7, we have S=4.6854980 and log 6732.7=3,8281893, whence, by addition, we obtain 8.5136873; but V for lo" is – 2.29, whence the variation for 12".7 is -3, and the log sine required is 8.5136870. Tables of S and T are frequently called, after their inventor, " See also:

Delambre's tables." Some seven-figure tables extend to loo,000,and others to Io8,000, the last 8000 logarithms, to 8 places, being given to ensure greater accuracy, as near the beginning of the numbers the differences are large and the interpolations more laborious and less exact than in the rest of the table. The eight-figure logarithms, however, at the end of a seven-figure table are liable to occasion error; for the computer who is accustomed to three leading figures, common to the block of figures, may fail to notice that in this part of the table there are four, and so a figure (the fourth) is sometimes omitted in taking out the logarithm. In the ordinary method of arranging a seven-figure table the change in the fourth figure, when it occurs in the course of the line, is a source of frequent error unless it is very clearly indicated. In the earlier tables the change was not marked at all, and the computer had to decide for himself, each time he took out a logarithm, whether the third figure had to be increased. In some tables the line is broken where the change occurs; but the dislocation of the figures and the corresponding irregularity in the lines are very awkward. Babbage printed the fourth figure in small type after a change; and Bremiker placed a See also:bar over it. The best method seems to be that of prefixing an asterisk to the fourth figure of each logarithm after the change, as is done in Schron's and many other modern tables. This is beautifully clear and the asterisk at once catches the eye. Shortrede and Sang replace o after a change by a nokta (resembling a See also:diamond in a See also:pack of See also:cards). This is very clear in the case of the o's, but leaves unmarked the cases in which the fourth figure is 1 or 2. A method which finds favour in some recent tables is to underline all the figures after the increase, or to place a line over them.

Babbage printed a subscript point under the last figure of each logarithm that had been increased. SchrSn used a bar subscript, which, being more obtrusive, seems less satisfactory. In some tables the increase of the last figure is only marked when the figure is increased to a 5, and then a See also:

Roman fve (v) is used in place of the Arabic figure. Hereditary errors in logarithmic tables are considered in two papers " On the Progress to Accuracy of Logarithmic Tables " and " On Logarithmic Tables," in Monthly Notices R.A.S., 33, pp. 330, 440. See also vol. 34, p. 447 ; and a paper by Gernerth, Ztsch. f. d. osterr. Gymm., Heft vi. p. 407. Passing now to the logarithmic trigonometrical canon, the first great advance after the publication of the Trigonometria artificialis m 1633 was made in Michael Taylor's Tables of Logarithms (London, 1792), which give log sines and tangents to every second of the quadrant to 7 places. This table contains about 450 pages with an See also:average number of 7750 figures to the page, so that there are altogether nearly three millions and a half of figures.

The change ' See also:

Legendre (Traile des fonctions elliptiques, vol. ii., 1826) gives a table of natural sines to 15 places, and of log sines to 14 places, for every 15" of the quadrant, and also a table of logarithms of uneven numbers from 1163 to 1501, and of primes from 150I to 10,000 to 19 places. The latter, which was extracted from the Tables du cadastre, is a continuation of a table in W. See also:Gardiner's Tables of Logarithms (London, 1742; reprinted at See also:Avignon, 1770), which gives logarithms of all numbers to See also:I000, and of uneven numbers from woo to 1143. Legendre's tables also appeared in his Exercices de calcul integral, vol. iii. (1816).in the leading figures, when it occt'rs in a column, is not marked at all; and the table must be used with very great caution. In fact it is advisable to go through the whole of it, and fill in with See also:ink the first o after the change, as well as make some mark that will catch the eye at the See also:head of every column containing a change. The table was calculated by interpolation from the Trigonometria artificialis to 10 places and then reduced to 7, so that the last figure should always be correct. Partly on account of the See also:absence of a mark to denote the change of figure in the column and partly on account of The size of the table and a somewhat inconvenient arrangement, the work seems never to have come into general use. Computers have always preferred V. Bagay's Nouvelles Tables astronomiques et hydrographiques (Paris, 1829), which also contains a complete logarithmic canon to every second. The change in the column is very clearly marked by a large black See also:nucleus, surrounded by a circle, printed instead of o. Bagay's work having become rare and costly was reprinted with the errors corrected.

The reprint, how-ever, bears the original title-page and date 1829, and there appears to be no means of distinguishing it from the original work except by turning to one of the errata in the original edition and examining whether the correction has been made. The only other canon to every second that has been published is contained in R. Shortrede's Logarithmic Tables (See also:

Edinburgh). This work was originally issued in 1844 in one volume, but being dissatisfied with it Shortrede issued a new edition in 1849 in two volumes. The first volume contains logarithms of numbers, See also:anti-logarithms, &c., and the second the trigonometrical canon to every second. The volumes are sold separately, and may be regarded as See also:independent works; they are not even described on their title-pages as vol. i. and vol. ii. The trigonometrical canon is very complete in every respect, the arguments being given in time as well as in arc, full proportional parts being added, &c. The change of figure in the column is denoted by a nokta, printed instead of o where the change occurs. The page is crowded and the See also:print not very clear, so that Bagay is to be preferred for See also:regular use. Previous to 1891 the only important tables in which the quadrant is divided centesimally were J. P. Hobert and L.

See also:

Ideler, Nouvelles tables trigonometriques (Berlin, 1799), and C. See also:Borda and J. B. J. Delambre, Tables trigonomitriques decimates (Paris, 180,). The former give, among other tables, natural and log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, to 7 places, the arguments proceeding to 3° at intervals of 10" and thence to 50° at intervals of 1' (centesimal), and also natural sines and tangents for the first hundred ten-thousandths of a right angle to lo places. The latter gives long sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants from 00 to 3°at intervals of lo" (with full proportional parts for every second), and thence to 50° at intervals of 1' (centesimal) to 7 places. There is also a table of log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents from o' to 10' at intervals of Io" and from o to 50° at intervals of 10' (centesimal) to I1 places. Hobert and Ideler give a natural as well as a logarithmic canon; but Borda and Delambre give only the latter. Borda and Delambre give seven-figure logarithms of numbers to Io,000, the line being broken when a change of figure takes place in it. The tables of Borda and Delambre having become difficult to procure, and seven-figure tables being no longer sufficient for the accuracy required in See also:astronomy and See also:geodesy, the French government in 1891 issued an eight-figure table containing (besides logarithms of numbers to 120,000) log sines and tangents for every ten seconds (centesimal) of the quadrant, the latter being extracted from the Tables du cadastre of See also:Prony (see LOGARITHM). The title of this fine and handsomely printed work is Service giographique de l'armee: Tables des logarithmes a huit decimates . publiees par ordre du ministre de la guerre (Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1891).

These tables are now in common use where eight figures are required. In See also:

Brigg's Trigonometria Britannica of 1633 the degree is divided centesimally, and but for the See also:appearance in the same year of Vlacq's Trigonometria artificialis, in which the degree is divided sexagesimally, this reform might have been effected. It is clear that the most suitable time for making such a change was when the natural canon was replaced by the logarithmic canon, and Briggs took advantage of this opportunity. He left the degree unaltered, but divided it centesimally instead of sexagesimally, thus ensuring the advantages of decimal division (a saving of work in interpolations, multiplications, &c.) with the minimum of change. The French mathematicians at the end of the 18th century divided the right angle centesimally, completely changing the whole system, with no appreciable advantages over Briggs's system. In fact the centesimal degree is as arbitrary a unit as the nonagesimal and it is only the non-centesimal subdivision of the degree that gives rise to inconvenience. Briggs's example was followed by See also:Roe, See also:Oughtred, and other 17th-century writers; but the centesmal division of the degree seemed to have entirely passed out of use, till it was revived by C. Bremiker in his Logarithmisch-trigonometrische Tafeln mit funf Decimalstellen (Berlin, 1872, loth ed. revised by A. Kallius, 1906). This little book of 158 pages gives a five-figure canon to every hundredth of a degree with proportional parts, besides logarithms of numbers, addition and subtraction logarithms, &c. The eight-figure table of 1891 has now made the use of a centesimal table compulsory, if this number of figures is required. The Astronomische Gesellschaft are, however, See also:publishing an eight-figure table on the sexagesimal system, under the See also:charge of Dr.

J. Bauschiltger, the director of the k. Recheninstitut at Berlin. The arrangement is to be in See also:

groups of three as in Bremiker's tables. Collections of Tables.—For a computer who requires in one volume logarithms of numbers and a ten-second logarithmic canon, perhaps the two best books are L. Schron, Seven-Figure Logarithms (London, 1865, stereotyped, an English edition of the German work published at See also:Brunswick), and C. Bruhns, A New See also:Manual of Logarithms to Seven Places of Decimals (Leipzig, 1870). Both these works (of which there have been numerous editions) give logarithms of numbers and a complete ten-second canon to 7 places; Bruhns also gives log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents to every second up to 6 with proportional parts. Schron contains an interpolation table, of 75 pages, giving the first loo multiples of all numbers from 40 to 420. The logarithms of numbers extend to to8,000 in Schron and to too,000 in Bruhns. Almost equally convenient is Bremiker's edition of Vega's Logarithmic Tables (Berlin, stereotyped; the English edition was translated from the fortieth edition of Bremiker's by W. L.

F. See also:

Fischer). This book gives a canon to every ten seconds, and for the first five degrees to every second, with logarithms of numbers to 100,000. Schron, Bruhns, and Bremiker all give the proportional parts for all the differences in the logarithms of numbers. In Babbage's, Callet's, and many other tables only every other table of pro- zrtional parts is given near the beginning for want of space. hron, Bruhns, and most modern tables published in See also:Germany have title-pages and introductions in different languages. J. See also:Dupuis, Tables de logarithmes a See also:Sept decimales (stereotyped, third tirage, 1868, Paris), is also very convenient, containing a ten-second canon, besides logarithms of numbers to 100,000, hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 1000, to 7 places, &c. In this work negative characteristics are printed throughout in the tables of circular functions, the minus sign being placed above the figure; for the mathematical calculator these are preferable to the ordinary characteristics that are increased by 10. The edges of the pages containing the circular functions are red, the rest being See also:grey. Dupuis also edited Callet's logarithms in 1862, with which this work must not be confounded. J. Salomon, Logarithmische Tafeln (Vienna, 1827), contains a ten-second canon (the intervals being one second for the first two degrees), logarithms of numbers to 108,000, squares, cubes, square roots, and cube roots to 1000, a factor table to 102,011, ten-place Briggian and hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to l000 and of primes to 10,333, and many other useful tables.

The work, which is scarce, is a well-printed small quarto volume. Of collections of general tables among the most useful and accessible are Hutton, Callet, Vega, and Kohler. C. Hutton's well-known Mathematical Tables (London) was first issued in 1785, but considerable additions were made in the fifth edition (1811). The tables contain seven-figure logarithms to 108,000, and to 1200 to 20 places, some antilogarithms to 20 places, hyperbolic logarithms from t to 10 at intervals of •01 and to 1200 at intervals of unity to 7 places, logistic logarithms, log sines and tangents to every second of the first two degrees, and natural and log sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines for every minute of the quadrant to 7 places. The natural functions occupy the left-hand pages and the logarithmic the right-hand. The first six editions, published in Hutton's lifetime (d. 1823), contain Abraham Sharp's 61-figure logarithms of numbers. Olinthus See also:

Gregory, who brought out the 183o and succeeding editions, omitted these tables and Hutton's introduction, which contains a history of logarithms, the methods of constructing them, &c. F. Callet's Tables portalives de logarithmes (stereotyped, Paris) seems to have been first issued in 1783, and has since passed through a great many editions. In that of 1853 the contents are seven-figure logarithms to 108,000, Briggian and hyperbolic logarithms to 48 places of numbers to loo and of primes to 1097, log sines and tangents for minutes (centesimal) throughout the quadrant to 7 places, natural and log sines to 15 places for every ten minutes (centesimal) of the quadrant, log sines and tangents for every second of the first five degrees (sexagesimal) and for every ten seconds of the quadrant (sexagesimal) to 7 places, besides logistic logarithms, the first hundred multiples of the modulus to 24 places and the first ten to 70 places, and other tables.

This is one of the most complete and practically useful collections of logarithms that have been published, and it is See also:

peculiar in giving a centesimally divided canon. The size of the page in the editions published in the 19th century is larger than that of the earlier editions, the type having been reset. G. Vega's Tabulae logarithmo-trigonometricae was first published in 1797 in two volumes. The first contains seven-figure logarithms to ioi,000, log sines, &c., for every tenth of a second to 1', for every second to 1° 30', for every to" to 6° 3', and thence at intervals of a minute, also natural sines and tangents to every minute, all to 7 places. The second volume gives simple divisors of all numbers up to 102,000, a list of primes from 102,000 to 400,313, hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to loon and of primes to io,000, to 8 places, e' and logcoes to xto at intervals of .01 to 7 figures and 7 places respectively, the first nine powers of the numbers from t to too, squares and cubes to 1000, logisticlogarithms, See also:binomial theorem coefficients, &c. Vega also published Manuale logarithmico-trigonometricum (Leipzig, 1800), the tables in which are identical with a portion of those contained in the first volume of the Tabulae. The Tabulae went through many editions, a stereotyped issue being brought out by J. A. Hulsse (Sammlung mathematischer Tafeln, Leipzig) in one volume in 1840. The contents are nearly the same as those of the original work, the chief difference being that a large table of Gaussian logarithms is added. Vega differs from Hutton and Callet in giving so many useful non-logarithmic tables, and his collection is in many respects complementary to theirs.

J. C. Schulze, Neue and erweiterte Sammlung logarithmischer, trigonometrischer, and anderer Tafeln (2 vols. Berlin, 1i78), is a valuable collection, and contains seven-figure logarithms to 101,000, log sines and tangents to 2° at intervals of a second, and natural sines, tangents, and secants to 7 places, log sines and tangents and Napierian log sines and tangents to 8 places, all for every ten seconds to 4° and thence for every minute to 45°, besides squares, cubes, square roots, and cube roots to 1000, binomial theorem coefficients, powers of e, and other small tables. Wolfram's hyperbolic logarithms of numbers below 10,000 to 48 places first appeared in this work. J. H. Lambert's Supplementa tabularum logarithmicarum et trigonometricarum (See also:

Lisbon, 1798) contains a number of useful and curious non-logarithmic tables and bears a general resemblance to the second volume of Vega, but there are also other See also:snail tables of a more strictly mathematical character. A very useful collection of non-logarithmic tables is contained in Peter Barlow's New Mathematical Tables (London, 1814). It gives squares, cubes, square roots, and cube roots (to 7 places), reciprocals to 9 or 10 places, and resolutions into their prime factors of all numbers from t to 10,000, the first ten powers of numbers to 100, fourth and fifth powers of numbers from 100 to 1000, prime numbers from 1 to 100,103, eight-place hyperbolic logarithms to io,000, tables for the solution of the irreducible case in cubic equations, &c. In the stereotyped reprint of 1840 only the squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots, and reciprocals are retained. The first volume of Shortrede's tables, in addition to the trigonometrical canon to every second, contains antilogarithms and Gaussian logarithms.

F. R. Hassler, Tabulae logarithmicae et trigonometricae (New York, 1830, stereotyped), gives seven-figure logarithms to 100,000, log sines and tangents for every second to 1°, and log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents from 1° to 3° at intervals of to" and thence to 45° at intervals of 30". Every effort has been made to reduce the size of the tables without loss of distinctness, the page being only about 3 by 5 inches. Copies of the work were published with the introduction and title-page in different languages. A. D. See also:

Stanley, Tables of Logarithms (New Haven, U.S., 1860), gives seven-figure logarithms to 100,000, and log sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants at intervals of ten seconds to 15° and thence at intervals of a minute to 45° to 7 places, besides natural sines and cosines, antilogarithms, and other tables. This collection owed its origin to the fact that Hassler's tables were found to be inconvenient owing to the smallness of the type. G. Luvini, Tables of Logarithms (London, 1866, stereotyped, printed at See also:Turin), gives seven-figure logarithms to 20,040, Briggian and hyperbolic logarithms of primes to 1200 to 20 places, log sines and tangents for each second to 9', at intervals of to" to 2° of 30" to 9°, of 1' to 45° to 7 places, besides square and cube roots up to 625. The book, which is intended for See also:schools, engineers, &c., has a peculiar arrangement of the logarithms and proportional parts on the pages.

Mathematical Tables (W. & R. See also:

Chambers, Edinburgh), containing logarithms of numbers to 500,000, and a canon to every minute of log sines, tangents, and secants and of natural sines to 7 places, besides proportional logarithms and other small tables, is cheap and suitable for schools, though not to be compared as regards matter or See also:typography to the best tables described above. Of six-figure tables C. Bremiker's Logarithmorum VI. decimalium nova tabula Berolinensis (Berlin 1852) is probably one of the best. It gives logarithms of numbers to 100,000, with proportional parts, and log sines and tangents for every second to 5°, and beyond 5° for every ten seconds, with proportional parts. J. Hantschl, Logarithmisch-trigonometrisches Handbuch (Vienna, 1827), gives five-figure logarithms to 10,000, log sines and tangents for every ten seconds to 6 places, natural sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines for every minute to 7 places, logarithms of primes to 15,391, hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 11,273 to 8 places, least divisors of numbers to 18,277, binomial theorem coefficients, &c. R. Farley's Six-Figure Logarithms (London, stereotyped, 1840), gives six-figure logarithms to 10,000 and log sines and tangents for every minute to 6 places. Coming now to five-figure tables a very convenient little book is Tables of Logarithms (Useful Knowledge Society, London, from the stereotyped plates of 1839), which was prepared by De Morgan, though it has no name on the title-page. It contains five-figure logarithms to 10,000, log sines and tangents to every minute to 5 places, besides a few smaller tables.

J. de See also:

Lalande's Tables de logarithmes is a five-figure table with nearly the same contents as De Morgan's, first published in 1805. It has since passed through many editions, and, after being extended from 5 to 7 places, passed through several more. J. Galbraith and S. See also:Haughton, Manual of Mathematical Tables (London, 1860), give five-figure logarithms to io,000 and log sines and tangents for every minute, also a small table of Gaussian logarithms. J. Houel, Tables de logarithnzes a cinq decimales (Paris, 1871; new edition 1907), is a very convenient collection of five-figure tables; besides logarithms of numbers and circular functions, there are Gaussian logarithms, least divisors of numbers to Io,841, antilogarithms, &c. The work (118 pp.) is printed on thin paper. A. Gernerth, Fiinfstellige gemeine Logarithmen (Vienna, 1866), gives logarithms to Io,800 and a ten-second canon. There are sixty lines on the page, so that the double page contains log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents extending over a minute. C.

Bremiker, Logarithmisch-trigonometrische Tafeln mit fiinf Decimalstellen (loth edition by A. Kallius, Berlin, 1906), which has been already referred to, gives logarithms to 10,009 and a logarithmic canon to every hundredth of a degree (sexagesimal), in a handy volume; the lines are divided into groups of three, an arrangement about the convenience of which there is a difference of See also:

opinion. H. Gravelius, Fiinfstellige logarithmisch-trigonometrische Tafeln fur See also:die Decimalteilung des Quadranten (Berlin, 1886), is a well-printed five-figure table giving logarithms to 10,009, a logarithmic canon to every centesimal minute (i.e. ten-thousandth part of a right angle), and an extensive table (40 pp.) for the conversion of centesimally expressed arcs into sexagesimally expressed arcs and vice versa. Among the other tables is a four-place table of squares from o to 10 at intervals of •ooi with proportional parts. E. See also:Becker, Logarithmisch-trigonometrisches Handbuch auf fiinf Decimalen (2nd stereo. ed., Leipzig, 1897), gives logarithms to 10,009 and a logarithmic canon for every tenth of a minute to 6° and thence to 45° for every minute. There are also Gaussian logarithms. V. E. Gamborg, Logaritmetabel (See also:Copenhagen, 1897), is a well-printed collection of tables, which contains a five-figure logarithmic canon to every minute, five-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000, and five-figure antilogarithms, viz., five-figure numbers answering to four-figure mantissae from •0000 to •9999 at intervals of •000i. H.

Schubert, Fiinfstellige Tafeln and Gegentafeln (Leipzig, 1896), is peculiar in giving, besides logarithms of numbers and a logarithmic and natural canon, the three .converse tables of numbers answering to logarithms, and angles answering to logarithmic and natural trigonometrical functions. The five-figure tables of F. G. Gauss (Berlin, 1870) have passed through very many editions, and mention should also be made of those of T. Wittstein (See also:

Hanover, 1859) and F. W. Rex (See also:Stuttgart, 1884). S. W. See also:Holman, Computation Rules and Logarithms (New York, 1896), contains a well-printed and convenient set of tables including five-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000 and a five-figure logarithmic canon to every minute, the actual characteristics (with the negative sign above the number) being printed, as in the tables of Dupuis, 1868, referred to above. There is also a four-place trigonometrical canon and four-place anti-logarithms, reciprocals, square and cube roots, &c. G.

W. Jones, Logarithmic Tables (4th ed., London, and Ithaca, N.Y., 1893), contains a five-place natural trigonometrical canon and a six-place logarithmic canon to every minute, six-place Gaussian and hyperbolic logarithms, besides a variety of four-place tables, including squares, cubes, quarter-squares, reciprocals, &c. The factor table has been already noticed. It is to be observed that the fourth edition is quite a distinct work from the third, which contained much fewer tables. J. B. See also:

Dale, Five figure Tables of Mathematical Functions (London, 1903), is a book of 92 pages containing a number of small five-figure tables of functions which are not elsewhere to be found in one volume. Among the functions tabulated are elliptic functions of the first and second kind, the gamma See also:function, Legendre's coefficients, Bessel's functions, sine, cosine, and exponential integrals, &c. J. Houel's Recueil de formules et de tables numiriques (Paris, 1868) contains 19 tables, occupying 62 pages, most of them giving results to 4 places; they relate to very varied subjects—antilogarithms, Gaussian logarithms, logarithms of I +x/i —x elliptic integrals, squares for use in the method of least squares, &c. C. Bremiker, Tafel vierstelliger Logarithmen (Berlin, 1874), gives four-figure logarithms, of numbers to 2009, log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents to 8° for every hundredth of a degree, and thence to 45° for every tenth of a degree, to 4 places.

There are also Gaussian logarithms, squares from 0.000 to 13,500, antilogarithms, &c. The book contains 6o pages. It is not See also:

worth while to give a list of four-figure tables or other tables of small extent, which are very numerous, but mention may be made of J. M. See also:Peirce, Mathematical Tables chiefly to Four Figures (See also:Boston, U.S., 1879), 42 pp., containing also hyperbolic functions; W. See also:Hall, Four figure Tables and Constants (Cambridge, 1905), 6o pp., chiefly for nautical computation; A. du P. Denning, Five figure Mathematical Tables for School and Laboratory Purposes (12 pp. of tables, large octavo); A. R. Hinks, Cambridge Four figure Mathematical Tables (12 pp.). C. M. Willich, Popular Tables (London, 18J3), is a useful book for an See also:amateur; it gives Briggian and hyperbolic logarithms to 1200 to 7 places, squares, &c., to 343, &c.

Hyperbolic or Napierian or Natural Logarithms.—The logarithms invented by Napier and explained by him in the Descriptio (1614) were not the same as those now called natural or hyperbolic (viz., to See also:

base e), and very frequently also Napierian, logarithms. Napierianlogarithms, strictly so called, have entirely passed out of use and are of purely historic interest; it is therefore sufficient to refer to the article LOGARITHM, where a full account is given. Apart from the inventor's own publications, the only strictly Napierian tables of importance are contained in See also:Ursinus's Trigonometria (See also:Cologne, 1624—1625) and Schulze's Sammlung (Berlin, 1778), the former being the largest that has been constructed. Logarithms to the base e, where e denotes 2.71828 ..., were first published by J. Speidell, New Logarithmes (1619). The most copious table of hyperbolic logarithms is Z. Dase, Tafel der natiirlichen Logarithmen (Vienna, 1850), which extends from i to moo at intervals of unity and from I000 to Io,5oo at intervals of •1 to 7 places, with differences and proportional parts, arranged as in an ordinary seven-figure table. By adding log to to the results the range is from I0,000 to I05,000 at intervals of unity. The table formed part of the See also:Annals of the Vienna See also:Observatory for 1851, but separate copies were printed. The most elaborate table of hyperbolic logarithms is due to Wolfram, who calculated to 48 places the logarithms of all numbers up to 2200, and of all primes (also of a great many composite numbers) between this limit and 10,009. Wolfram's results first appeared in Schulze's Sammlung (1778). Six logarithms which Wolfram had been prevented from computing by a serious illness were supplied in the Berliner Jahrbuch, 1783, p.

191. The complete table was reproduced in Vega's Thesaurus (1794), where several errors were corrected. Tables of hyperbolic logarithms are contained in the following collections:—Callet, all numbers to loo and primes to 1097 to 48 places; Borda and Delambre (18oi), all numbers to 1200 to 11 places; Salomon (1827), all numbers to I000 and primes to 10,333 to 10 places; Vega, Tabulae (including Hiilsse's edition, 1840), and Kohler (1848), all numbers to moo and primes to 10,000 to 8 places; Barlow (1814), all numbers to I0,000; Hutton, Mathematical Tables, and Willich (1853), all numbers to 1200 to 7 places; Dupuis (1868), all numbers to moo to 7 places. Hutton also gives hyperbolic logarithms from i to to at intervals of .o, to 7 places. Rees's Cyclopaedia (1819), See also:

art, " Hyperbolic Logarithms," contains a table of hyperbolic logarithms of all numbers to 10,000 to 8 places. Logarithms to base e are generally termed Napierian by English writers, and natural by See also:foreign writers. There seems no objection to the former name, though the logarithms actually invented by Napier depended on the base but it should be mentioned in See also:text-books that so-called Napierian logarithms are not identical with those originally devised and calculated by Napier. Tables to convert Briggian into Hyperbolic Logarithms, and vice versa.—Such tables merely consist of the first hundred (sometimes only the first ten) multiples of the modulus .43429 44819 and its reciprocal 2.30258 50929 . to 5, 6, 8, lo, or more places. They See also:ale generally to be found in collections of logarithmic tables, but rarely exceed a page in extent, and are very easy to construct. Schron and Bruhns both give the first hundred multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal to to places, and Bremiker (in his edition of Vega and in his six-figure tables) and Dupuis to 7 places. C. F.

Degen, Tabularum Enneas (Copenhagen, 1824), gives the first hundred multiples of the modulus to 30 places. Antilogarithms.—In the ordinary tables of logarithms the natural numbers are integers, while the logarithms are incommensurable. In an antilogarithmic canon the logarithms are exact quantities, such as •0000l, •00002, &c., and the corresponding numbers are incommensurable. The largest and earliest work of this kind is J. Dodson's Antilogarithmic Canon (London, 1742), which gives numbers to a places corresponding to logarithms from o to at intervals of •00001, arranged like a seven-figure logarithmic table, with interscript differences and proportional parts at the bottom of the page. This work was the only large antilogarithmic canon for more than a century, till in 1844 Shortrede published the first edition of his tables; in 1849 he published the second edition, and in the same year Filipowski's tables appeared. Both these works contain seven-figure antilogarithms: Shortrede gives numbers to logarithms from o to i at intervals of •0000i, with differences and multiples at the top of the page, and H. E. Filipowski, A Table of Antilogarithms (London, 1849), contains a table of the same extent, the proportional parts being given to hundredths. Small tables of antilogarithms to 20 places occur in several collections of tables, as Gardiner (1742), Callet, and Hutton. Four-and five-place tables are not uncommon in recent works, as e.g. in Houel (1871), Gamborg (1897), Schubert (1896), Holman (1896). Addition and Subtraction, or Gaussian Logarithms.—The object of such tables is to give log (a See also:

mob) by only one entry when log a and log b are given.

Let A =log x, B =log (1+x i), C=log (i+x). Leaving out the specimen table in Z. Leonelli's Theorie des logarithmes additionnels et deductifs (See also:

Bordeaux, 1803), in which the first See also:suggestion was made,' the See also:principal tables are the following: Gauss, in See also:Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz (1812), gives B and C for argument A from o to 2 at intervals of •ool, thence to 3.40 ' Leonelli's original work of 1803, which is extremely scarce, was reprinted by J. Houel at Paris in 1875. at intervals of •oi, and to 5 at intervals of •I, all to 5 places. This table is reprinted in Gauss's Werke, vol. iii. p. 244. E. A. Matthiessen, Tafel zur bequemern Berechnung (See also:Altona, 1818), gives B and C to 7 places for argument A from o to 2 at intervals of •000i, thence to 3 at intervals of •ooi, to 4 at intervals of •01, and to 5 at intervals of •t; the table is not conveniently arranged. Peter See also:Gray, Tables and Formulae (London, 1849, and " Addendum," 187o), gives C for argument A from -3 to -1 at intervals of •ooi and from -1 to 2 at intervals of •000i, to 6 places, with proportional parts to hundredths, and log (1—x) for argument A from—3 to -1 at intervals of -See also:oat and from Y to .Y8999 at intervals of •000i, to 6 places, with proportional parts. J.

Zech, Tafeln der Additionsund Subtractions-Logarithmen (Leipzig, 1849), gives B for argument A from o to 2 at intervals of •000i, thence to 4 at intervals of • ooi and to 6 at intervals of an ; also C for argument A from o to •0003 at intervals of •0000001, thence to •05 at intervals of . 000001 and to .303 at intervals of •0000l, all to 7 places, with proportional parts. These tables are reprinted from Hiilsse's edition of Vega (1849); the 184o edition of Hiilsse's Vega contained a reprint of Gauss's original table. T. Wittstein, Logarithmes de Gauss a Sept decimales (Hanover, 1866), gives B for argument A from 3 to 4 at intervals of •1, from 4 to 6 at intervals of •ot, from 6 to 8 at intervals of •ooi, from 8 to to at intervals of •000i, also from o to 4 at the same intervals. In this hand-some work the arrangement is similar to that in a seven-figure logarithmic table. Gauss's original five-place table was reprinted in Pasquich, Tabulae (Leipzig, 1817) ; Kohler, See also:

Jerome de la Lande's Tafeln (Leipzig, 1832), and Handbuch (Leipzig, 1848) ; and Galbraith and Haughton, Manual (London, 186o). Houel, Tables de logarithmes (1871), also gives a small five-place table of Gaussian logarithms, the addition and subtraction logarithms being separated as in Zech. Modified Gaussian logarithms are given by J. H. T. Muller, Vierstellige Logarithmen (Gotha, 1844), viz., a four-place table of B and —log (i —x-l) from A =o to •03 at intervals of •000i, thence to .23 at intervals of •ooi, to 2 at intervals of •o1, and to 4 at intervals of •1; and by Shortrede, Logarithmic Tables (vol. i., 1849), viz., a five-place table of B and log (i +x) from A=5 to at intervals of •I, from A =3 to 2.7 at intervals of •oj, to 1.3 at Intervals of •ooi, to 3 at intervals of •ot, and to 5 at intervals of •1.

Filipowski's Antilogarithms (1849) contains Gaussian logarithms arranged in a new way. The principal table gives log (x+I) as tabular result for log x as argument from 8 to 14 at intervals of .001 to 5 places. Weidenbach, Tafel um den Logarith- men ... (Copenhagen, 1829), gives log x+i for argument A from -382 to 2.002 at intervals of •ooi, to 3.6 at intervals of an, and to 5.5 at intervals of •i to 5 places. J. Houel's Recueil de formules et de tables numeriques (2nd ed., Paris, 1868) contains tables of log1o(x+i), logioi? , and logs I±z from log x= -5 to -3 at intervals of •I, from log x= — 3 to — I at intervals of .01, from log x= -1 to o at intervals of •ooi. F. W. Rex (Fiinfstellige Logarithmen-Tafeln, Stuttgart, 1884) gives also a five-figure table of log 1+x and E. See also:

Hammer in his Sechsstellige Tafel der Werthe fur jeden Wert des Arguments log x (Leipzig, 1902) gives a six-figure table of this function from log x=7 to 1.99000, and thence to 1.999700 to 5 places. S.

Gundelfinger's Sechsstellige Gaussische and siebenstellige gemeine Logarithmen (Leipzig, 1902) contains a table of See also:

logic, (t+x) to 6 places from log x= -2 to 2 at intervals of •ooi. G. W. Jones's Logarithmic Tables (4th ed., London, and Ithaca, N.Y., 1893) contain 17 pages of Gaussian six-figure tables; the principal of which give log (I +x) to argument log x from log x= -2 •8o to o at intervals of •ooi, and thence to •1999 at intervals of •000i, and log (1 —x'') to argument log x from log x =•4 to •5 at intervals of •000i, and thence to 2.8 at intervals of •ooi. Gaussian logarithms to 5 or 4 places occur in many collections of five-figure or four-figure tables. Quadratic Logarithms.—In a pamphlet Saggio di tavole dei logaritmi quadratics (See also:Udine, 1885) See also:Conte A. di Prampero has described a method of obtaining fractional powers (See also:positive or negative) of any number by means of tables contained in the work. If abz=N, then x=log log Ng —log log a, lo b and if the logarithms are taken to be Briggian and a = toTs 2 r and b=2, then x=logic, logioN/log 2+1o. This quantity the author defines as the quadratic logarithm of N and denotes by LqN. It follows from this See also:definition that LqN' =LqN+logior/logio2. Thus the quadratic logarithms of N and N" where s is any power (positive or negative) of 2 have the same mantissa. A subsidiary table contains the values of the See also:constant logior/logio2 for 204 fractional values of r. The See also:main table contains the values of moo mantissae corresponding to arguments N, Nl, Ni, .

(which all have the same mantissae). Among the arguments are the quantities to•o, IO•I, 10.2, . . . 99.9 (the interval being •I) and io•oo, 1o•OI, . . . 10.99 (the interval being •os). As an ,example, to obtain the value of 121 we take from the first tablethe constant -0.584962, which belongs to ;, and entering the main table with 12 we take out the quadratic logarithm 10.109937 which, by applying the constant, gives 9.524975 the quadratic logarithm of the quantity required. An appendix (Tavola degli esponenti) gives the Briggian logarithms of the first 57 numbers to the first 50 numbers as base, viz. log0N for N=2, 3, ., 57 and x=2, . ., 50. The results are generally given to 6 places. Logistic and Proportional Logarithms.—In most collections of tables of logarithms a five-place table of logistic logarithms for every second to 1° is given. Logistic tables give log 3600—log x at intervals of a second, x being expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds.

In Schulze (1778) and Vega (1797) the table extends to x=3600" and in Callet and Hutton to x=5280". Proportional logarithms for every second to 3° (i.e. log io,800—log x) form part of nearly all collections of tables relating to navigation, generally to 4 places, sometimes to 5. Bagay, Tables (1829), gives a five-place table, but such are not often to be found in collections of mathematical tables. The same remark applies to tables of proportional logarithms for every minute to 24h, which give to 4 or 5 places the values of log 1440—log X. The object of a proportional or logistic table, or a table of log a—log x, is to facilitate the calculation of proportions in which the third term is a. Interpolation Tables.—All tables of proportional parts may be regarded as interpolation tables. C. Bremiker, Tafel der Proportionalteile (Berlin, 1843), gives proportional parts to hundredths of all numbers from 70 to 699. Schron, Logarithms, contains an interpolation table giving the first hundred multiples of all numbers from 40 to 410. Sexagesimal tables, already described, are interpolation tables where the denominator is 6o or 600. Tables of the values of binomial theorem coefficients, which are required when second and higher orders of differences are used, are described below. W.

S. B. Woolhouse, On Interpolation, Summation, and the See also:

Adjustment of Numerical Tables (London, 1865), contains nine pages of interpolation tables. The book consists of papers extracted from vols. 11 and 12 of the Assurance See also:Magazine. Dual Logarithms.—This term was used by See also:Oliver Byrne in his Dual See also:Arithmetic, See also:Young Dual Arithmetician, Tables of Dual Loga- rithms, &c. (London, 1863-67). A dual number of the ascending branch is a continued product of powers of 1.1, i•oi, 1•ooI, &c., taken in order, the powers only being expressed; thus 1 6,9,7,8 denotes (I•I)3(I•ol)9(I•ool)'(I•000t)8, the numbers following the j being called dual digits. A dual number which has all but the last digit zeros is called a dual logarithm; the author uses dual logarithms in which there are seven ciphers between the 1 and the logarithm. Thus since 1.00601502 is equal to l 0,0,0,0,0,0,0,599702 the whole number 599702 is the dual logarithm of the natural number 1.00601502. A dual number of the descending branch is a continued product of powers of •9,•99, &c.: for instance, (.9)3(.99)2 is denoted by '3 '2 T. The Tables, which occupy 112 pages, give dual numbers and logarithms, both of the ascending and descending branches, and the corresponding natural numbers.

The author claimed that his tables were See also:

superior to those of common logarithms. Constants.—In nearly all tables of logarithms there is a page devoted to certain frequently used constants and their logarithms, such as r, 1r-1, See also:r2, See also:air. A specially good collection is printed in W. Templeton's Millwright's and Engineer's See also:Pocket See also:Companion (See also:cor- rected by S. See also:Maynard, London, 1871), which gives 58 constants involving it and their logarithms, generally to 30 places, and 13 others that may be properly called mathematical. A good list of constants involving it is given in Salomon (1827). A paper by G. Paucker in Grunert's Archiv ( vol. i. p. 9) has a number of constants involving r given to a great many places, and Gauss's memoir on the See also:lemniscate function (Werke, vol. iii.) has e—,r, e-i r, eat., &c., calculated to about 5o places. The quantity r has been worked out to 707 places (Shanks, Proc. Roy. Soc., 21, p.

319). J. C. See also:

Adams has calculated See also:Euler's constant to 263 places (Proc. Roy. Soc., 27, p. 88) and the modulus .43429 • . . to 272 places (Id. 42, p. 22). The latter value is quoted in extenso under LOGARITHM. J.

See also:

Burgess on p. 23 of his paper of 1888, referred to under Tables of es, has given a number of constants involving r and p (the constant .476936 . . occurring in the Theory of Errors), and their Briggian logarithms, to 23 places. Tables for the Solution of Cubic Equations.—Lambert, Supplementa (1798), gives t (x—x3) from x= •ooi to 1.155 as intervals of •001 to 7 places, and Barlow (1814) gives x3—x from x=t to 1.1549 at intervals of •000i to 8 places. Very extensive tables for the solution of cubic equations are contained in a memoir " Beitrage zur Auflosung hoherer Gleichungen " by J. P. Kulik in the Abh. der k. Bohm. Ges. der Wiss. (See also:Prague, 186o), II, pp. 1-123. The principal tables (pp.

58-123) give to 7 (or 6) places the values of t (x—x3) from x=0 to x=3.2800 at intervals of •ooi. There are also tables of the even and uneven determinants of cubic equations, &c. Other tables for the solution of equations are by A. S. Guldberg in the Forhand. of the Videns-Selskab of See also:

Christiania for 1871 and 1872 (equations. of the 3rd and 5th order), by S. Gundelfinger, Tafeln zur Berechnung der reellen Wurzeln slimtlicher trinomischen Gleichungen (Leipzig, 1897), which depend on the use of Gaussian logarithms, and by R. Mehme, Schlomilch's Zeitschrift, 1898, 43, p. 8o (quadratic equations). Binominal Theorem Coefficients.—Tables of the values of x(x-1), x(x-I) (x-2) x(x-I) ... (x-5) 1.2 I.2.3 1.2...6 from x = •01 to x =I at intervals of •o1 to 7 places (which are useful in interpolation by second and higher orders of differences), occur in Schulze (1778), Barlow (1814), Vega (1797 and succeeding editions), Hantschl (1827), and Kohler (1848). W. Rouse, See also:Doctrine of Chances (London, n.d.), gives on a folding See also:sheet (a+b)" for n=T, 2,...20.

H. Gylden (Recueil des Tables, See also:

Stockholm, 1880) gives binomial coefficients to 1J=40 and their logarithms to 7 places. Lambert, Supplementa (1798), has the coefficients of the first 16 terms in (I +x) and (T -x)i, their values being given accurately as decimals. Vega (1797) has a page of tables giving 214, vi 1.3 ng yI...213, ... and similar quantities to to places, with their logarithms to 7 places, and a page of this kind occurs in other collections. Kohler (1848) gives the values of 40 such quantities. Figurate Numbers.—Denoting n(n+T)...(n+i-1)/i! by [n];, Lambert, Supplementa, 1798, gives [n]: from n= T to n=3o and from i= I to i =12 ; and G. W. See also:Hill (Amer. Jour. Math., 1884, 6, p. 130) gives log,o[n]; for n =I, g, , 1, , and from i =I to i = 30. Trigonometrical Quadratic Surds.—The surd values of the sines of every third degree of the quadrant are given in some tables of logarithms; e.g., in Hutton's (p. xxxix., ed.

1855), we find sin 3 =e[Al(5+See also:

J5)+J125+Jg—J(15+3J5)—Jg—JZ[; and the numerical values of the surds J (5+J5), 3/(V), &c., are given to to places. These values were extended to 20 places by Peter Gray, Mess. of Math., 1877, 6, p. 105. Circulating Decimals.—Goodwyn's tables have been described already. Several others have been published giving the numbers of digits in the periods of the reciprocals of primes: Burckhardt, Tables des diviseurs du premier million (Paris, 1814-1817), gave one for all primes up to 2543 and for 22 primes exceeding that limit. E. See also:Desmarest, Theorie des nombres (Paris, 1852), included all primes up to 10,000. C. G. Reuschle, Mathematische Abhandlung, enthaltend neue zahlentheoretische Tabellen (1856), contains a similar table to 15,000. This W. Shanks extended to 60,000; the portion from I to 30,000 is printed in the Proc.

Roy. Soc., 22, p. 200, and the See also:

remainder is preserved in the archives of the society (Id., 23, p. 260 and 24, p. 392). The number of digits in the decimal period of 1/p, is the same as the exponent to which lo belongs for modulus p, so that, whenever the period has p-I digits, lo is a See also:primitive root of p. Tables of primes having a given number, n, of digits in their periods, i.e. tables of the resolutions of Io"-I into factors and, as far as known, into prime factors, have been given by W. Looff (in Grunert's Archiv, 16, p. 54; reprinted in Nouv. annales, 14, p. 115) and by Shanks (Proc. Roy. Soc., 22, p.

381). The former extends to n=6o and the latter to n =100, but there are gaps in both. Reuschle's tract also contains resolutions of lo,-1. There is a similar table by C. E. Bickmore in Mess. of Math., 1896, 25, p. 43. A full account of all tables connecting n and p where io" =1, mod p, io" being the least power for which this congruence holds good, is given by Allan Cunningham (Id., 1904, 33, p. 145)• The paper by the same author, " Period-lengths of Circulates " Vd. 1900, 29, p. 145) relates to circulators in the See also:

scale of radix a. e also tables of the resolutions of a"-I into factors under Tables relating to the Theory of Numbers (below). Some further references on circulating decimals are given in Proc.

Camb. Phil. Soc., 1878, 3, p. 185. Pythagorean Triangles.—Right-angled triangles in which the sides and hypothenuse are all rational integers are frequently termed Pythagorean triangles, as, for example, the triangles 3, 4, 5, and 5, 12, 13. Schulze, Sammlung (1778), contains a table of such triangles subject to the See also:

condition tan zw2(w being one of the acute angles). About Too triangles are given, but some occur twice. Large tables of right-angled rational triangles were given by C. A. Bretschneider, in Grunert's Archie, 1841, 1, p. 96, and by Sang, Trans. Roy.

Soc. Edin., 1864, 33, p. 727. In these tables the triangles are arranged according to hypothenuses and extend to 1201, 1200, 49, and 1105, 1073, 264 respectively. W. A. See also:

Whitworth, in a paper read before the Lit. and Phil. Society of See also:Liverpool in 1875, carried his list as far as 2465, 2337, 784. See also H. See also:Rath, " Die rationalen Dreiecke," in Grunert's Archie, 1874, 56, p. 188. Sang's paper also contains a table of triangles having an angle of 120° and their sides integers.

Powers of ,r.—G. Paucker, in Grunert's Archie, p. To, gives r -1 and iri to 140 places, and r-2, ir-i, iri, 7r3 to about 50 places; J. Burgess (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1898, 39, II., No. 9, p. 23) gives (4r)-a, 2hr-1, and some other constants involvingir as well as their Briggian logarithms to 23 places, and in Maynard's list of constants (see Constants, above) ir-e is given to 31 places. The first twelve powers of w and 7ri to 22 or more places were given by Glaisher, in Proc. Lond. Math.

Soc., 8, p. 140, and the first hundred multiples of it and r -1 to 12 places by J. P. Kulik, Tafel der Quadrat- and Kubik-Zahlen (Leipzig, 1848). The Series l-'+2-"+3-'+&c.—Let o" denote respectively the sums of the series &c., I-"-2-"+3 "-&c., 1-"+3-"+5-"+ &c. Legendre (Traiti des fonctions elliptiques, vol. 2, p. 432) computed S" to 16 places from 51=1 to 35, and Glaisher (Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., 4, p. 48) deduced s" and v" for the same arguments and to the same number of places.

The latter also gave for n =2, 4, 6, ... 12 to 22 or more places (Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., 8, p. 140), and the values of where E"=2-"+3-"+ 5-"+&c. (prime numbers only involved), for n=2, 4, 6, ... 36 to 15 places (Compte rendu de l'Assoc. Francaise, 1878, p. 172). C. W.

Merrifield (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1881, 33, p. 4) gave the values of loge S and for n =1 , 2 , 3 „. . , 35 to 15 places, and Glaisher (Quar. Jour. Math., 1891, 25, p. 347) gave the values of the same quantities for n=2,4,6,.. ., 8o to 24 places (last figure uncertain). Merrifield's table was reprinted by J. P. Gram on p.

269 of the paper of 1884, referred to under Sine-integral, &c., who also added the values of logo S. for the same arguments to 15 places. An error in E3 in Merrifield's table is pointed out in Quar. Jour. Math., 25, p. 373. This quantity is correctly given in Gram's reprint. T. J. Stieljes has greatly extended Legendre's table of S. His table (See also:

Arta math., 1887, 10, p. 299) gives S for all values of n up to n=70 to 32 places. Except for six errors of a unit in the last figure he found Legendre's table to be correct.

Legendre's table was re-printed in De Morgan's See also:

Duff, and Int. Calc. (1842), p. 554. Various small tables of other series, involving inverse powers of prime numbers, such as 5-"+7-"+ I"-13"-}-... , are given in vols. 25 and 26 of the Quar. Jour. Math. Tables of ex and a x, or Hyperbolic Antilogarithms.—The largest tables are the following: C. Gudermann, Theorie der potenzial- See also:oder cyklisch-hyperbolischen Functionen (Berlin, 1833), which consists of papers reprinted from vols. 8 and 9 of Crelle's See also:Journal, and gives loglo sinh x, login cosh x, and logio tanh x from x=2 to 5 at intervals of •001 to 9 places and from x =5 to 12 at intervals of •01 to to places.

Since sinh x = i(ex -e-x) and cosh x = 2 (ex+ex), the values of ex and ex are deducible at once by addition and subtraction. F. W. See also:

Newman, in Camb. Phil. Trans., 13, p. 145, gives values of e-x from x=o to 15.349 at intervals of •ooi to 12 places, from x = 15'350 to 17.298 at intervals of •002, and from x= 17.300 to 27.635 at intervals of •005, to 14 places. Glaisher, in Camb. Phil. Trans., 13, p. 243, gives four tables of ex, ex, login ex, logio ez, their ranges being from x= •001 to •I at intervals of •001, from •01 to 2 at intervals of •oi, from •I to to at intervals of •i, from i to 500 at intervals of unity. Vega, Tabulae (1797 and later ed.) has logo ex to 7 places and ex to 7 figures from x=•o1 to Io at intervals of -or.

Kohler's Handbuch contains a small table of ex. In Schulze's Sammlung (1778) ex is given for x=i, 2, 3,... 24 to 28 or 29 figures and for x=25, 30, and 6o to 32 or 33 figures; this table is reprinted in Glaisher's paper (loc. cit.). In Salomon's Tafeln (1827) the values of a”, e'", e'0n, a °0n .. e'000000n where n has the values I, 2,...9, are given to 12 places. Bretschneider, in Grunert's Archie, 3, p. 33, gave ex and e -x and also sin x and cos x for x =I, 2,...10 to 20 places, and J. P. Gram (in his paper of 1884, referred to under Sine-integral, &c.), gives ex for x=TO, 11,.. .20 to 24 places, and from x=7 to x=20 at intervals of 0.2 to 10, 13, 14, or 15 places. J. Burgess (Trans. Roy.

Soc. Edin., 1888, 39, II. No. 9) has given (p. 26) the values of e -x and .v!e x for x =1 and for x =I, 2, ... , 10 to 30 places. In the same paper he also gives the values of Jae x2 from x =0 to x =1.250 to 9 places, and from x=1.25 to x = 1.50 at intervals of •01, and thence at various intervals to x=6 to 15 places, and the values of logio Jae x2 from x =1 tc x=3 at intervals of '001 to 16 places. Factorials.—The values of log10 (n!), where n! denotes I . 2 . 3.. . n, from n = I to 1200 to 18 places, are given by C. F.

Degen, Tabularum Enneas (Copenhagen, 1824), and reprinted, to 6 places, at the end of De Morgan's article " Probabilities " in the See also:

Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. Shortrede, Tables (1849, vol. i.), gives log (n!) to n =1000 to 5 places, and for the arguments ending in o to 8 places. Degen also gives the complements of the logarithms. The first 20 figures of the values of nXn! and the values of -log (nXn!) to lo places are given by Glaisher as far as n=71 in the Phil. Trans. for 1870 (p. 370), and the values of 1/n! to 28 significant figures as far as n=5o in Camb. Phil. Trans., 13, p. 246. Bernoullian Numbers.—The first fifteen Bernoullian numbers were given by Euler, Inst. Cale. Diff., part ii. ch. v.

Sixteen more were calculated by See also:

Rothe, and the first thirty-one were published by M. See also:Ohm in Crelle's Journal, 20, p. I I. J. C. Adams calculated the next thirty-one, and a table of the first sixty-two was published by him in the Brit. See also:Ass. Report for 1877 and in Crelle's Journal, 85, p. 269. In the Brit. Ass. Report the numbers are given not only as vulgar fractions, but also expressed in integers and circulating decimals.

The first nine figures of the values of the first 250 Bernoullian numbers, and their Briggian logarithms to 10 places, have been published by Glaisher, Camb. Phil. Trans., 12, p. 384. Tables of log tan (iir+Y)).—C. Gudermann, Theorie der potenzialoder cyklisch-hyperbolischen Functionen (Berlin. 1833), gives (in 100 pages) log tan air +10) for every centesimal minute of the quadrant to 7 places. Another table contains the values of this function. also at intervals of a minute, from 88° to 1oo° (centesimal) to ii places. A. M. Legendre, Traite des fonctions elliptiques (vol. ii. p.

256), gives the same function for every half degree (sexagesimal) of the quadrant to 12 places. The Gamma Function.—Legendre's great table appeared in vol. ii. of his Exercices de calcul integral (1816), p. 85, and in vol. ii. of his Traite des fonctions elliptiques (1826), p. 489. Logo r(x) is given from x =I to 2 at intervals of •ooi to 12 places, with differences to the third order. This table is reprinted in full in O. Schlomilch, Analytische Studien (1848), p. 183; an abridgment in which the arguments differ by •ot is given by De Morgan, Diff, and Int. Calc., p. 587. The last figures of the values omitted are also supplied, so that the full table can be reproduced. A seven-place abridgment (without differences) is published in J.

See also:

Bertrand, Calcul integral (1870), p. 285, and a six-figure abridgment in B. See also:Williamson, Integral Calculus (1884), p. 169. In vol. i. of his Exercices (1811), Legendre had previously published a seven-place table of login P(x), without differences. Tables connected with Elliptic Functions.—Legendre published elaborate tables of the elliptic integrals in vol. ii. of his Traite des fonctions elliptiques (1826). Denoting the modular angle by 0, the See also:amplitude by the incomplete integral of the first and second kind by F(4,) and FI(4), and the complete integrals by K and E, the tables are:—(I) logioE and logioK from 0=o° to 90° at intervals of 00.1 to 12 or 14 places, with differences to the third order; (2) E,(4,) and F(4), the modular angle being 45°, from 0=o° to 90° at intervals of 00.5 to 12 places, with differences to the fifth order; (3) E,(45°) and F (450) from 0=00 to 90° at intervals of i°, with differences to the sixth order, also E and K for the same arguments, all to 12 places; (4) See also:Ea(4) and F(4,) for every degree of both the amplitude and the argument to 9 or 10 places. The first three tables had been published previously in vol. iii. of the Exercices de calcul integral (1816). Tables involving q.—P. F. Verhulst, Traite des fonctions elliptiques (Brussels, 1841), contains a table of logio(logio)q-' for argument 0 at intervals of o°.1 to 12 or 14 places. C.

G. J. See also:

Jacobi, in Crelle's Journal, 26, p. 93, gives loglo q from 0=o° to 90 at intervals of o°.1 to 5 places. E. D. F. Meissel's Sammlung mathematischer Tafeln, i. (See also:Iserlohn, 1860), consists of a table of loglo q at intervals of 1' from 0 =o° to 90° to 8 places. Glaisher, in Month. Not. R.A.S., 1877, 37, p.

372, gives log10 q to lo places and q to 9 places for every degree. In j. Bertrand's Calcul Integral (1870), a table of logo q from 0=o° to 9'0° at intervals of 5' to 5 places is accompanied by tables of loglo ' (2K/ar) and loglo login q-' and by abridgments of Legendre's tables of the elliptic integrals. O. Schlomilch, Vorlesungen der hoheren See also:

Analysis (Brunswick, 1879), p. 448, gives a small table of login q for every degree to 5 places. Legendrian Coefficients (Zonal Harmonies).—The values of P"(x) for n=1, 2, 3,...7 from x=o to i at intervals of •oi ale given by Glaisher, in Brit. Ass. See also:Rep., 1879, pp. 54-57. The functions tabulated are P'(x)=x, P2(x)=1(3x2—1), P'(x)=1(5x3—3x), P'(x)=e(35x"- 3ox2+3), P5(x) = -(63x6-70x'+15x), P6 (X) = i o (231x6—315x4+105x2 -5), P7(x) =11a(429x7_693x5+315x3-35x). The values of P"(cos 0) for n=1, 2,...7 for 8=0°, 1°, 2°, ..90° to 4 places are given by J.

See also:

Perry in the Proc. Phys. Soc., 1892, II, p. 221, and in the Phil. Mag., 1891, ser. 6, 32, p. 512. The functions P" occur in connexion with the theory of interpolation, the attraction of spheroids, and other See also:physical theories. Bessel's Functions.—F. W. Bessel's original table appeared at the end of his memoir, " Untersuchung des planetarischen Teils der Storungen, welche aus der Bewegung der Sonne entstehen " (in Abh. d. Berl.

Akad. 1824; reprinted in vol. i. of his Abhandlungen, p. 84). It gives J°(x) and See also:

J1(x) from x=o to 3.2 at intervals of •01. More extensive tables were calculated by P. A. See also:Hansen in " Ermittelung der absoluten Storungen in Ellipsen von beliebiger Excentricitat and Neigung " (in Schriften der Sternwarte Seeberg, part i., Gotha, 1843). They include an See also:extension of Bessel's original table to x=20, besides smaller tables of J"(x) for certain values of n as far as n =28, all to 7 places. Hansen's table was reproduced byy O. Schlomilch, in Zeitschr. fiir Math., 2, p. 158, and by E. Lommel, Studien fiber die Bessel'schen Functionen (Leipzig, 1868), p.

127. Hansen's notation is slightly different from Bessel's; the change amounts to halving each argument. Schlomilch gives the table in Hansen's form; Lommel expresses it in Bessel's. Lord See also:

Rayleigh's Theory of See also:Sound (1894), I, p. 321, gives Jo(x) and JI(x) from x=o to x=13.4 at intervals of o•i to 4 places, taken from Lommel. A large table of the same functions was given by E. D. F. Meissel in the Abh. d. Berlin Akad. for 1888 (published also separately). It contains the values of Js(x) and Ji(x) from x=o to x=15.50 at intervals of 'oi. A.

See also:

Lodge has calculated the values of the function I,,(x) where (j x2 x4 )} In(x) =See also:ice J„(fx) =2"nl I+2(2n+2)+2'4•(2n+2)(2n+4)+... His tables give I"(x) for n=o, 1, 2,..., II from x=o to x=6 at intervals of 0.2 to II or 12 places (Brit. Ass. Rep., 1889, p. 29), I:(x) and lo(x) from x=o to x=5'100 at intervals of •ooI to 9 places (Id., 1893, P. 229, and 1896, p. 99), and of J°(xoJi) from x =0 to x =6 at intervals of 0•2 (Id., 1893, p. 228) to 9 places. In all the tables the last figure is uncertain. Subsidiary tables for the calculation of Bessel's functions are given by L. N. G.

See also:

Filon and A. Lodge in Brit. Ass. Rep., 1907, p. 94. The work is being continued, the object being to obtain the values of J"(x) for n=o, 1, 1, .., 61. A table by E. Jahnke has been announced, which, besides tables of other mathematical functions, is to contain values of Bessel's functions of order 1 and roots of functions derived from Bessel's functions. Sine, Cosine, Exponential, and Logarithm Integrals.—The functions so named are the integrals f sin xdx (z cos xdx,J e-dx, o x J x x x dx o log x.' which are denoted by the functional signs Si x, Ci x, Ei x, li x respectively, so that Ei x =1i ex. J. von Soldner, Theorie et tables d'une nouvelle fonction transcendante (Munich, 1809), gave the values of li x from x =0 to i at intervals of •1 to 7 places, and thence at various intervals to 1220 to 5 or more places. This table is reprinted in De Morgan's Diff, and Int. Calc., p.

662. Bretschneider, in Grunert's Archiv, 3, p. 33, calculated Ei (t x), Si x, Ci x for x =I, 2, ... Io to 20 places, and subsequently (in Schlomilch's Zeitschrift, 6) worked out the values of the same functions from x=o to i at intervals of •01 and from I to 7.5 at intervals of •1 to io places. Two tracts by L. Stenberg, Tabulae logarithms integralis (See also:

Malmo, part i. 1861 and part ii. 1867), give the values of li lox from x = -15 to 3.5 at intervals of •01 to 18 places. Glaisher, in Phil. Trans., 1870, p. 367, gives Ei (max), Si x, Ci x from x=o to 1 at intervals of •01 to 18 places, from x =I to 5 at intervals of • 1 and thence to 15 at intervals of unity, and for x=20 to 11 places, besides seven-place tables of Si x and Ci x and tables of their maximum and minimum values. See also Bellavitis, " Tavole numeriche logaritmo-integrale " (a paper in.

See also:

Memoirs of the Venetian See also:Institute, 1874). F. W. Bessel calculated the values of li I00o, li 10,000, li 100,000, li 200,000,. li 600,000, and li 1,000,000 (see Abhandlungen, 2, p. 339). In Glaisher, Factor Table for the Sixth Million (1883), § iii., the values of li x are given from x=o to 9,000,000 at intervals of 50,000 to the nearest integer. . J. P. Gram in the publications of the Copenhagen Academy, 1884, 2, No. 6 (pp. 268-272), has given to 20 places the values of Ei x from x=lo to x=20 at intervals of a unit (thus carrying Bretschneider's table to this extent) and to 8, 9, or Io places, the values of the same function from x=5 to x=2o at intervals of 0.2 (thus extending Glaisher's table in the Phil.

Trans.). Values of f x e x2dx and e22 f x e-z2dx.-These^•functions are employed in researches connected with refractions, theory of errors, See also:

conduction of See also:heat, &c. Let f o ex°dx and Tx ex2dx be denoted by erf x and erfc x respectively, standing for " error function " and "error function See also:complement," so that erf x+erfc x=1,/o (Phil. Mag., Dec. 1871; it has since been found convenient to transpose as above the See also:definitions there given of erf and erfc). The tables of the functions, and of the functions multiplied by ex2, are as follows. C. Kramp, Analyse des Refractions (Strasbourg, 1798), has erfc x from x=0 to 3 at intervals of •ol to 8 or more places, also loglo (erfc x) and loglo (ex°erfc x) for the same values to 7 places. F. W. Bessel, Fundamenta astronomiae (See also:Konigsberg, 1818), has loglo (ex2erfc x) from x=o to i at intervals of •01 to 7 places, likewise for argument loglo x, the arguments increasing from o to i at intervals of •01. A.

M. Legendre, Traite des fonctions elliptiques (1826), 2, p. 520, contains r(1, e-x2), that is, 2 erfc x from x=o to '5 at intervals of •oi to lo places. J. F. See also:

Encke, Berliner See also:ast. Jahrbuch for 1834, gives ? erf x ti7 from x=o to 2 at intervals of •01 to 7 places and * erf (px) from x=o to 3.4 at intervals of •oi and thence to 5 at intervals of •1 to 5 places, p being •4769360. Glaisher, in Phil. Mag., See also:December 1871, gives erfc x from x =3 to 4.5 at intervals of •01 to i i, 13, or 14 places. Encke's tables and two of Kramp's were reprinted in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, art. " Probabilities." These tables have also been reprinted in many foreign works on probabilities, errors of observations, &c. In vol.

2 (1880) of his Lehrbuch zur Bahnbestimmung der Kometen and Planeten T. R. v. Oppolzer gives (p. 587) a table of erf x from x=o to 4.52 at intervals of •01 to io places, and (p. 603) a table of * erf x from x=0 to 2 at intervals of •oi to 5 places. Both tables were the result of original calculations. A very large table of loglo ex2 erfc x was calculated by R. Radau and published in the A nnales de l'observatoire de Paris (Memoires, 1888, 18, B. 1-25), It contains the values of loglo ex2 erfc x from x= -0.120 to 1.000 at intervals of -riot to 7 places, with differences. A: Markoff in a W separate publication, .Table des valeurs de l'integrale l ed2dt (St Petersburg, 1888), gives erfc x from x=o to 3 at intervals of •ooi and from x=3 to 4.8o at intervals of •o1, with first, second, and third differences to II places. He also gives a table of .* erf x from x=o to x=2.499 at intervals of •001 and thence to 3.79 at intervals of •01. J.

Burgess, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1888, 39, II., No. 9, published very extensive tables of ., ar erf x, which were entirely the result of a new calculation. His tables give the values of this function from x=o to 1.250 at intervals of 'not to 9 places with first and second differences, from x=I to 3 at intervals of •ooi to 15 places with differences to the fourth order, and from x=3 to 5 at intervals of •1 to 15 places. He also gives erfc x from x=o to x=5 at intervals of .1 to 15 places. B. Kampfe in See also:

Wundt's Phil. '2 See also:Stud., 1893, p. 147, gives J; erf x from x=o to x=1.509 at intervals of •oo,, and from x=1.50 to x=2.88 at intervals of 'tit to 4 places. G.

T. See also:

Fechner's Elemente der Psychophysik (Leipzig, 186o) contains (pp. Io8, 1 to) some small four-place tables connecting r/n (as argu- ment) and hD where r—Z+serf h• A more detailed account of tables of erf x, ex2 erf x, &c., is given in Mess. of Math.,1908, 38, p. 117. Values of f ex'dx.—The values of this integral have been calculated by H. G. See also:Dawson from x=o to x=2 to 7 places (last figure uncertain). The table is published in the Proc. See also:Land. Math. Soc., 1898, 29, p. 521.

Tables of Integrals, not Numerical.—See also:

Meyer See also:Hirsch, Integraltafeln (181o; Eng. trans., 1823), and Minding, Integraltafeln (Berlin, 1849), give values of indefinite integrals and formulae of reduction; both are useful and valuable works. De Haan, Nouvelles tables d'integrales denies (See also:Leyden, 1867), is a quarto volume of 727 pages containing evaluations of definite integrals, arranged in 485 tables. The first edition appeared in vol. 4 of the Transactions of the Amsterdam Academy of Sciences. This edition, though not so full and accurate as the second, gives references to the original memoirs in which the different integrals are considered. B. O. Peirce's A See also:Short Table of Integrals (Boston, U.S.A., 1899) contains integrals, formulae, expansions, &c., as well as some four-place numerical tables, including those of hyperbolic sines and cosines and their logarithms. Tables relating to the Theory of Numbers.—These are of so technical a character and so numerous that a comprehensive account cannot be attempted here. The reader is referred to See also:Cayley's report in the Brit.Ass. Rep. for 1875, p. 305, where a full description with references is given.

Three tables published before that date may, however, be briefly noticed on account of their importance and because they form separate volumes: (I) C. F. Degen, Canon Pellianus (Copenhagen, 1817), relates to the indeterminate See also:

equation y2—ax2=l for values of a from 1 to woo. It in fact gives the expression for See also:Ala as a continued fraction; (2) C. G. J. Jacobi, Canon arithmeticus (Berlin, 1839), is a quarto work containing 240 pages of tables, where we find for each prime up to moo the numbers corresponding to given indices and the indices corresponding to given numbers, a certain primitive root (io is taken whenever it is a primitive root) of the prime being selected as base; (3) C. G. Reuschle, Tafeln cornplexer Primzahlen, welche aus Wurzeln der Einheit gebildet See also:sind (Berlin, 18. 5), includes an enormous mass of results relating to the higher complex theories. Passing now to tables published since the date of Cayley's report, the two most important works are (I) See also:Col. Allan Cunningham's Binary Canon, (London, 1900), a quarto volume similar in construction, arrangement, purpose, and extent to Jacobi's Canon arithmeticus, but differing from it in using the base 2 throughout, i.e. in Jacobi's Canon the base of each table is always a primitive root of the modulus, while in Cunningham's it is always 2.

The latter tables in fact give the residues R of 2s (where x=o, 1, 2, . . . ) for every prime p or power of a prime, pz, up to I000, and also the indices x of 2s, which yield the residues R to the same moduli. This work contains a list of errors found in the Canon arithmeticus. (2) The same author's Quadratic Partitions (London, 1904). These tables give for every prime p up to Ioo,000 the values of a, b; c, d; A, B; and L, M where p =a2+b2 =c2+2d2 =A2+3$2 = i(L2+27M2). They also give e, f where p=e2—2f2 up to 25,000 and resolutions of p into the forms x2-5y2, 10(2_5 y2), 12+7112, ;(v2+iiw2) A'2—3B'2, x'2+5y'2, (72 +6E12, G"—6H'2, t'2—7u'2, >;2+I0j2, h'2—lon'2, v'2—IIw'2 up to Io,000; as well as the least solutions of T2—See also:

DIP= 1 up to D =loo and least solutions of other similar equations. A complete list of errata in the previous See also:partition tables of Jacobi, Reuschle, See also:Lloyd See also:Tanner, and in this table is given by Allan Cunningham in Mess. of Math., 1904, 34, p. 132. The See also:resolution of a"—, into its numerical factors is treated in detail by C. E. Bickmore in Mess. of Math., 1896, 25, p.

1, and 1897, 26, p. I. On p. 43 of the former volume he gives a table of the known factors of a"—I for a=2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 and from n=1 to n=50. Other papers on the same subject contained in the same periodical are by Allan Cunningham, 1900, 29, p. 145; 1904, 33, p. 95 ; and F. B. Escott, ibid., p. 49. These papers contain references to other writings. Tables of the resolutions of lo'— 1 are referred to separately in this article under Circulating Decimals.

If az is the smallest power of a for which the congruence a'-1 (mod. p) is satisfied, then a is said to belong to the exponent x for modulus p, and x may be called the chief exponent (See also:

Haupt-exponent by Allan Cunningham) of the base a for the modulus p; so that (I) this exponent is the number of figures in the circulating period of the fraction 1/p in the scale of radix a, and (2) when x=p—1, a is a primitive root of p. In Mess. of Math., 1904, 33, p. 145, Allan Cunningham has given a complete list of Haupt-exponent tables with lists of errata in them; and in Quar. Jour. Math., 1906, 37, p. 122, he gives a table of Haupt-exponents of 2 for all primes up to 10,000. In Acta Math. (1893, 17, p. 315; 1897, 20, p. 153; 1899, 22, p. 200) G. Wertheim has given the least primitive root of primes up to 5000..

The following papers contain lists of high primes or factorizations of high numbers: Allan Cunningham, Mess. of Math., 1906, 35, p. 166 (Pellian factorizations) ; 1907, 36, p. 145 (Quartan factorizations) ; 1908, 37, p. 65 (Trinomial binary factorizations) ; 1909, 38, pp. 81, 145 (Diophantive factorization of quartans) ; 1910, 39, pp. 33, 97; 1911, 40, p. I (Sextanfactorizations) ; 1902, 31, p. 165; 1905, 34, p. 72 (High primes). The last three are See also:

joint papers by Cunningham and H. J. Woodall.

Tables relating to the distribution of primes are contained in the introduction to the Sixth Million (see under Factor Tables), in J. P. Gram's paper on the number of primes inferior to a given limit in the Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., 1884, II. 6, Copenhagen, and in Mess. of Math., 1902. 31, p. 172. A table of x(n), the sum of the complex numbers having n for rorm, for primes and powers of primes up to n =13,000 by Glaisher, was published in Quar. Jour. Math., 1885, 20, p. 152, and a seven-place table of f(x) and logo f(x), where f(x) denotes s • a • s .

. .x x I, the denominators being the series of prime numbers up to 10,000, in Mess. of Math., 1899, 28, p. 1.

End of Article: TABERNACLES, FEAST OF

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