See also:

• BUCKINGHAM
• BUCKINGHAM, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• BUCKINGHAM, FIRST DUKE
• BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1ST DUKE 0E1
• BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE 0E1 (1628-1687)
• BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2ND DUKE OF3 (1454-1483)
• BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK (1786-1855)

But he soon fell back under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

1665/ with his niece See also:

• MARIANA, JUAN DE (1536-1624)

The part taken by Spain in the actual1700-/3. struggle was mainly a passive one, and it ended for her.with the loss of See also:

• GIBRALTAR

The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

His ministers, of 1759. whom the most notable were Zenon de Somadevila, See also:

• MARQUIS

In 1778 he joined France In supporting the insurgent English colonists in America. The most statesmanlike of his foreign enterprises, the attempt to take the piratical See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

In this work Charles III. was assisted, in addition to Squillacci and Aranda, by See also:

• CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ, CONDE DE (1723-1802)

He opened negotiations with the emigres, urged the See also:

• EUROPEAN

(See also:

• JAN

As soon as Bonaparte saw himself involved in a new war with England, he turned to Spain for assistance and extorted a new treaty (Oct. 9, 1803), which was still more burdensome than that of 1796. Spain had to pay a monthly See also:

• SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve,")

He entered into See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

Ferdinand, instead of retiring to See also:

• ANDALUSIA, or ANDALUCIA

It was in vain that Godoy sought to secure the friendship of the reforming party by giving office to two of its most prominent members, See also:

• JOVELLANOS (or JovE LLANOS), GASPAR MELCHOR DE (1744-1811)

As soon as the First See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

The rising in Spain began the popular move- King. went which ultimately proved fatal to his power. At first he treated the novel phenomenon with contempt, and thought it sufficient to send his less prominent generals against the rebels. Madrid was easily taken, but the Spaniards showed great capacity for the See also:

• GUERRILLA (erroneously written " guerilla," being the diminutive of the Span. guerra, war)

The See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

In fact, however, since much of the country was held by the French, they were often returned by such natives of the regions so occupied as happened to be present in Cadiz at the time. The real power fell to those of the delegates who were influenced by the new ideas. Unhappily, they had no experience of affairs; and they were perfectly ready to make a constitution for Spain on Jacobin lines, without the slightest regard to the real beliefs and interests of Spaniards. Out of these materials nothing could be expected to come except such a democratic constitution as might have been made by a Jacobin See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

The See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

Before entering Spain Ferdinand had undertaken to maintain the constitution of 1812, and when on the 22nd of March 1814 he reached See also:

• FIGUERAS

No progress had been made, the service was dreadfully costly in life, and it became intensely unpopular among the troops. Meanwhile the brutality of the king and his ministers had begun to produce a reaction. Not a few of the See also:

• OFFICERS

The See also:

• CON

The events of the three years from 1820—1823 were the beginning of a series of See also:

• CONVULSIONS

In announcing these facts to the House of Commons, George Canning, in a phrase that became famous, declared that he had " called a new world into existence to redress the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

The revocation had not however been promulgated. Under the influence of Maria Christina Ferdinand VII. formally promulgated it Isabella IL, at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

Then in April 1834, under the influence of the minister Martinez de La See also:

• ROSA, CARL AUGUST NICHOLAS (1843-1889)
• ROSA, MONTE
• ROSA, SALVATOR (1615-1673)

At last, in August 1839, exhaustion brought the Basques to reccgnize the government of Queen Isabella by the convention of Vergara in return for the See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

The queen, though only thirteen years old, was declared of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

The queen's marriage was miserable; and she consoled herself in a way which at once made her court the scandal of Europe, and upset the French king's plans by providing the throne of Spain with healthy heirs of genuine Spanish See also:

• BLOOD

For the next five years the political history of Spain was the story of a blind attempt on the part of the queen to rule despotically, by the help of reckless adventurers See also:

• MISRULE, LORD OF

There was no definite See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

At last, in August of Savoy 187o, Prince Amadeo of Savoy, second son of Victor accepts the See also:

• EMMANUEL, or IMMANUEL

The Carlists increased rapidly in numbers, and were joined by many Royalists, who looked upon them as the last resource. Bands of ruffians calling themselves " volunteers of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

When the Cortes met again in January 1874, the extreme parties voted against Castelar on the 3rd of the See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

The Church, the See also:

• NOBILITY

Until he felt sure of the early termination of the struggle with the pretender, he ruled in a dictatorial manner without the assistance of parlia- ment. Royal decrees simply set aside most of the legislation and reforms of the Spanish Revolution. Universal See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

From the beginning of the Restoration the great statesman, who was nicknamed at the of government which lasted for a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

This desire to exercise a preponderant influence in the affairs of Morocco culminated in the Madrid See also:

• CONFERENCE

These allies were said to be the dynastic and monarchical See also:

• BALLAST (O. Swed. barlast, perhaps from bar, bare or mere, and last, load)

The most irreconcilable Republicans knew that they could not expect much from popular risings in great towns or from the disaffected and anarchist peasantry in Andalusia, so they resorted to the old practice of barrack conspiracies, courting especially the non-commissioned officers and some ambitious subalterns. The chief of the exiles, Don See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

It prepared the way for raising the rank of the representatives of Spain in See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

When the See also:

• CHOLERA (from the Gr. Xo)du, tile, and Map, to flow)

Prince Bismarck looked upon the rights of Spain over the See also:

• CAROLINE
• CAROLINE (1683-1737)

Alphonso XII. left no male issue. He had two daughters, the princess of the See also:

• ASTURIAS

It was agreed that during the first years of the regency, Canovas and Sagasta would assist each other in defending the institutions and the dynasty. Sagasta made no secret of the fact that it was his intention to alter the laws and the constitution of the monarchy so as to make them very much resemble the constitution of the Revolution of 1868, but he undertook to carry out his reform policy by stages, and without making too many concessions to radicalism and See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

The young and most impatient adherents of Carlism vainly pleaded that such an opportunity would not soon be found again, and threatened to take the law into their own hands and unfurl the flag of Dios, Patria, y Rey in See also:

• NORTHERN

The and the court and government of Germany vied with the Regent'- Austrian and Italian royal families and governments in showing sympathy to the widow of Alphonse XII. Republican France and the See also:

• TSAR, or CZAR

Some commercial treaties and agreements were made, including one with Great Britain, which proved highly beneficial to home trade, and the tariff was altered, in spite of much resistance on the part of the Protectionists. In his progressive policy Sagasta was actively and usefully supported by the chief of the moderate Republicans, Emilio Castelar, who recommended his partisans to See also:

• VOTE

The Suffrage See also:

• BILL

Spain had received many ominous warnings. Marshal Campos, on returning from Cuba in 1879, had advocated some concessions to satisfy the . Iegitimate aspirations of the majority of the colonists. In 1886, in the first parliament of the rege.icy, Cuban autonomist deputies divided the house on a See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

Sagasta sent about 12,000 men to reinforce the 15,000 soldiers in Cuba under General Callaga, and was preparing more when a characteristically Spanish ministerial crisis arose. The subalterns of the Madrid garrison took offence at some articles published by See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

The Madrid government used an authorization which Sagasta had allowed his Long Parliament to vote, to please Senor Gamazo and the Liberal representatives of agricultural interests, empowering the government to revise and increase all tariff duties not covered by the then existing treaties of commerce. This was the case with most of the products of agriculture and with live stock, so 'Canovas and his finance minister made, by royal decree, an enormous increase in the duties on these classes of imports, and particularly on breadstuffs. Then, in 189r, they denounced all the treaties of commerce which contained clauses stipulating mostfavoured-nation treatment, and they prepared and put in force in February 1892 a protectionist tariff which completely reversed the moderate free-trade policy which had been' so beneficial to the foreign commerce of Spain from 1868 to 1892. Not a few nations retaliated with higher duties upon Spanish exports, and France raised her See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

The latter and a strong and influential body of Conservatives, chiefly young politicians, dissented from the easy-going views of Romero Robledo and of Canovas on the expediency of reforms to correct the notorious and old-standing abuses and corruption of the municipalities, especially of Madrid. When Canovas found himself deserted on so delicate a matter by a numerous section of his party, he resigned, and advised the queen to send for Sagasta and the Liberals. Sagasta took office very reluctantly, as he considered a change of policy premature. He conducted the general election with Difficulty much regard for the wishes of the opposition, and with out of 456 seats in the See also:

• LOWER

The queen-regent appointed General Azcarraga, the war minister, as successor to Canovas; and a few weeks later President See also:

• MCKINLEY, WILLIAM (1843—1901)

These protests were overruled by the majority of the ministers, who invoked dynastic and monarchical considerations in favour of a desperate stand, however hopeless, in See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

The American See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

Villaverde, however, had succeeded in less than eighteen months in giving a decisive and vigorous impulse to the reorganization of the budget, of taxation and of the home and colonial debts. He resolutely reformed all existing taxation, as well as the system of See also:

• ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. assessare, to sit beside, to judge)

At the eleventh hour he attempted to retrieve his See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

It must, however, not be Spanish forgotten that in a country in which, as in Spain, po'li'ce. the constitutional consciousness of the mass of the people is very little See also:

• DEVELOPED

The industrial unrest, fomented by Socialist agitation, culminated in January 1902 in industrial serious riots at Barcelona and Saragossa, and on unrest and the 16th of February in the See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

The Re-Break-up of publicans, under Salmeron, also had their troubles, Parties. due to the growing influence of Socialism; and, finally, the Conservatives were distracted by the rivalries between Silvela, Villaverde and Maura. In the country, meanwhile, the unrest continued. At Barcelona the university had to be closed to stop the revolutionary agitation of the students; in April there were serious riots at Salamanca, Barcelona and Madrid. The result of the new elections to the Cortes, declared on the 26th of April, revealed tendencies unfavourable to the government and even to the dynasty; the large towns returned 34 Republicans. A ministerial crisis followed; Maura resigned; and though the elections to the senate resulted in a large Conservative majority, and though in the lower house a vote of confidence was carried by 183 to 81, Silvela himself resigned shortly afterwards. Senor Villaverde was now called Viiiaverde upon to form a cabinet. His government, however, Ministry, accomplished little but the suppression of renewed 1904. troubles at Barcelona. His programme included drastic proposals for financial reform, which necessarily precluded an adventurous policy abroad or any additional expenditure on armaments, principles which necessarily brought him into conflict with the military and naval interests. On the 3rd of December Villaverde was forced to resign, his successor being Senor Maura. Meanwhile, on the 24th of November, the Liberal party had been reconstructed, as the Democratic party, under Senor Montero Rios. Senor Maura, as was to be proved by his second administra- tion, represented the spirit of compromise and of conservative PiestMaura reform. His position now was one of singular diffi- culty.

Though a Catholic, he had to struggle 1904. against the clerical coterie that surrounded the king, and had not influence enough to prevent the appointment of See also:

• MONSIGNOR (It. monsignore, my lord)

On the 27th of October, scarcely a fortnight after the opening of the session, the government resigned. At the instance of the king, who was going abroad, Senor Montero Rios consented indeed to resume office; but his difficulties only increased. The See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

Alphonso was now shaking himself loose from the deadening influence of the reactionary court, and was beginning to display a disconcerting interest in affairs, information about which he was See also:

• APT

The prolonged controversies to which this gave rise were settled on the 18th of March by a compromise passed by the Cortes; under this act all cases of press attacks on officers were to be tried by the courts martial, while those against the army generally and the national flag were still to be reserved for the civil courts. The singular weakness of the government revealed by this abdication of part of the essential functions of the civil power would have led to its speedy downfall, but for the truce cried during the festivities connected with the marriage of the king with Princess Victoria See also:

• EUGENIE

Already, on the 27th of November, Lopez-Dominguez had resigned; his Vega de successor, Moret, had at once suffered defeat in the Armyo house and been succeeded in his turn, on the 4th of ministry. December, by marquis de la Vega de Armijo. The 1906 -1907. question was now mooted in the cabinet of dropping the Associations Law; but on the 21st of January Senor Canalejas, president of the lower house, who was credited with having inspired the bill, publicly declared that in that event he would cease to support the government. By the 24th the cabinet had resigned, and a Conservative government was in office under Senor Maura as premier. The administration of Senor Maura, which lasted till the 21st of October 1900. marks an important epoch in the history of ' The king's reckless daring was destined later to impair his popularity, for in an enthusiastic motorist blind courage is a quality apt to be exercised at the expense of others.modern Spain. The new premier was no mere party politician, but a statesman who saw the need of his country, on the one hand for effective government, on the other hand for second education, so as to enable it ultimately to govern Mauro itself. Though a sincere Catholic, he was no Clerical, Administraas was proved by his Pausal to withdraw the tion, 1901' ordinance on civil marriage. The main See also:

• OBJECTS

The elections in April resulted in a sweeping Conservative victory—the government secured a majority in the lower house of 88 over all other groups combined. As for the " dynastic opposition," it was reduced to a rump of 66 members, a result so unsatisfactory from the point of view of the monarchy that the government offered to quash certain Conservative returns in order to provide it with more seats. The dynastic opposition, however, considered that it had been unfairly dealt with in the conduct of the elections; and though, out of consideration for the dynasty (an heir to the throne having been born on the loth of May), they attended the opening of the Cortes on the 13th of May, the Liberals refused to take part in the session that followed, which lasted till the 29th of July. When, Local however, the Cortes reopened on the loth of October, Administers. the dynastic opposition was once more in its aonReform. place. It was now that Senor Maura brought in his Local Administration Bill, a measure containing 429 clauses, the main features of which were that it largely increased the responsibility of the local elected bodies, made it compulsory for every elector to vote, and did away with official interference at. the polls. The bill met with strenuous opposition, and on the 23rd of December 1907 the Cortes adjourned without its having been advanced. At the close of the year an Anarchist See also:

• OUTRAGE (through O. Fr. ultrage, oltrage, oultrage, from Lat. ultra, beyond, exceeding, cf. Ital. oltraggio; the meaning has been influenced by connexion with " rage," anger)

Local Administration Bill, after being debated for two sessions, passed the lower house on the 13th of February 1909, having at the last moment received the support of the Liberal Senor Moret, though the Radicals as a whole opposed it as gratifying to Senor Cambo, the Regionalist leader, and there-fore as tending to disintegration. Though ruling in the spirit of an enlightened despotism rather than in that of a constitutional government, Senor Maura had succeeded in doing a notable work for Spain. It was inevitable that in doing so he should incur unpopularity in many quarters. His efforts to reconstruct the Spanish navy were attacked both by the apostles of retrenchment and by those who saw in the See also:

• SHIPBUILDING

The spark was put to the See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

The opening of the October session of the Cortes was signalized by a furious attack by Senor Moret on Senores Maura and La Cierva, who were accused of having Fin of sacrificed Ferrer to the resentment of their clerical Maura. task-masters. The government had been already weakened by the news of Marshal Marina's reverse in Morocco (See also:

• SEPT

Though at once denounced by Senor Moret as " a democratic flag being used to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

18, 1910). 2 The See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

The pretender, indeed, disclaimed any intention of stirring up civil war in Spain; his mission would be to restore order when the country should have wearied of the republican regime whose speedy advent he foresaw. The fulfilment of the first part of this prophecy seemed to some to be brought a step nearer by the overthrow of the monarchy in Portugal on the 5th of October 1910. For Spain its immediate effect was to threaten a great increase of the difficulties of the government, by the See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)