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GIBRALTAR
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GIBRALTAR , a See also:British fortress and See also:crown See also:colony at the western entrance to the Mediterranean. The whole territory is rather less than 3 M. in length from See also:north to See also:south and varies in width from 4 to m. Gibraltar is called after Tariq (or Tarik) See also:ben Zaid, its name being a corruption of See also:Jebel Tariq (See also:Mount Tariq). Tariq invaded See also:Andalusia in A.D. 711 with an See also:army of 12,000 See also:Arabs and See also:Berbers, and in the last days of See also:July of that See also:year destroyed the See also:Gothic See also:power in a three days' fight on the See also:banks of the See also:river Guadalete near where Jerez de la Frontera now stands. In See also:order to secure his communications with See also:Africa he ordered the See also:building of a strong See also:castle upon the See also:Rock, known to the See also:Romans as See also:Mons Calpe. This See also:work, begun in the year of the See also:great See also:battle, was completed in 742. It covered a wide See also:area, reaching from the shores of the See also:bay to a point See also:half-way up the north-western slope of the rock; here the keep, a massive square See also:tower, still stands and is known as the Moorish castle. The Rock itself is about 221n. in length, and at its See also:northern end rises almost perpendicularly from the See also:strip of See also:flat sandy ground which connects it with the See also:Spanish mainland. At the north end, on the See also:crest of the Rock 1200 ft. above See also:sea-level, is the Rock See also:gun, famous in the great See also:siege. Some six furlongs to the south is the See also:signal station (1255 ft.), through which the names and messages of passing See also:ships are cabled to all parts of the See also:world. Rather less than m. south of the signal station is O'Hara's Tower (1408 ft.) , the highest point of the Rock. South of O'Hara's Tower the ground falls steeply to See also:Windmill See also: Professors A. C. See also:Ramsay and See also: Chill See also:Hospital
5. See also:Court See also:House
6. See also:Exchange
7. Presbyterian See also: It consists of a See also:series of five or more See also:chambers of considerable extent, connected by narrow and crooked passages. The outermost cave is 7o ft. in height and 200 in length, with massive pillars of stalactite reaching from roof to See also:floor. The second cave was named the See also:Victoria cave by its discoverer See also:Captain See also:Brome; beyond these are three caves known as the Leonora caves. " Nothing," writes Captain Brome, '" can exceed the beauty, of the See also:stalactites; they See also:form clusters of every imaginable shape—statuettes, pillars, foliages, figures," and he adds that See also:American visitors have admitted that even the See also:Mammoth cave itself could not See also:rival these See also:giant stalactites in picturesque beauty. The mammalian remains of the Genista cave have been described by G. See also:Busk (" See also:Quaternary Fauna of Gibraltar " in Trans. of Zool. See also:Soc. vol. X. p. 2, 1877). They were found to contain remains of a See also:bear, probably Ursus fossilis of See also:Goldfuss; of a See also:hyena, H. crocuta or spclaea; of See also:cats varying from a See also:leopard to a See also:wild See also:cat in See also:size; of a See also:rhinoceros, resembling in species remains found in the See also:Thames valley; two forms of See also:ibex; the See also:hare and See also:rabbit. No trace has been found as yet of Rhinoceros tichorinus, of Ursus spelaeus or of the See also:reindeer; and of the See also:elephant only a molar tooth of Elephas antiquus. Further details may be found in the Quarterly Journ. of Geol. Soc. (James See also: In the public and private gardens and by the roadside may be seen the See also:pepper See also:tree, the See also:plane, the See also: The average yearly rainfall is 34.4 in., and in fifty years from 1857 to 1906 the greatest recorded rainfall was 59'35 in., and the smallest 16.75 in. The water-supply for drinking and cooking purposes is almost wholly derived from rain-water stored chiefly in underground tanks; there are very few goodwells. Many of the better class of houses have their own rain-water tanks, and there are large tanks belonging to the See also:naval and military authorities. Large storage tanks have been constructed by the sanitary commissioners with specially prepared See also:collecting areas high up the Rock. The collecting areas See also:cover 16 acres, and the storage tanks have a capacity of over six million gallons. The tanks are excavated in the solid rock, whereby the water is kept in the dark and cool. A large quantity of brackish water for See also:flushing purposes and See also:baths is pumped from the sandy flats of the north front on the Spanish side of the Rock. The Town.—The See also:modern town of Gibraltar is of comparatively See also:recent date, nearly all the older buildings having been destroyed during the great siege (1779-1783). The town lies, with most of its buildings crowded together, at the north-western corner of the Rock, and covers only about one-ninth part of the whole area; only a small part of it is on level ground, and those of its narrow streets and lanes which are at right angles to the See also:line wall, or sea front, are for the most part, except at their western ends, little more than ramps or rough stairs formed of See also:rubble stones, contracting in places into stone steps. The public buildings present few, if any, features of See also:general interest. The " Convent " rebuilt upon the remains of an old Franciscan monastery is the See also:official See also:residence of the See also:governor. The See also:Anglican cathedral is a poor See also:imitation of Moorish See also:architecture. The garrison library has excellent See also:reading rooms and a large number, of volumes of See also:miscellaneous interest. The See also:civil hospital is a well-planned and roomy modern building. The court-house and exchange buildings are suited to the needs of the town. The See also:antiquary may here and there find the remains of a Moorish See also:bath forming part of a See also:stable, or fragments of a sculptured stone gateway bearing the arms of See also:Castile or of See also:Aragon built into the wall of a modern barrack. In a small disused graveyard, near See also:Southport See also:gate, lie buried a number of those wild, See also:fell at See also:Trafalgar. To the south of the town are the Alameda See also:parade and gardens, a lunatic See also:asylum, the dockyard, graving docks and the naval and military hospitals. See also:Population.—The inhabitants of Gibraltar are of mixed See also:race; after the See also:capture of the town by the British nearly the whole of the former Spanish population emigrated in a See also:body and founded, 6 m. away, the little town of See also:San Roque. Most of the native inhabitants 'are of See also:Italian or Genoese descent; there are also a number of Maltese, and between two and three thousand See also:Jews. The Jews never intermarry with other races and form a distinct society of their own. The See also:language of the See also:people is Spanish, not very correctly spoken. See also:English is learnt as a See also:foreign language and is rarely, if ever, spoken by the people in their own homes. Gibraltar being primarily a fortress and naval base, every effort, in view of See also:war contingencies, is made by the authorities to prevent the natural increase of the population. Sanitary and building regulations, modelled upon English statutes designed with quite different See also:objects, are administered with some ingenuity and not a little severity. In this way the house See also:room available for the poorer classes is steadily reduced. The poor are thus being gradually pushed across the frontier into the neighbouring Spanish town of La Linea de la See also:Concepcion, itself a See also:mere suburb of Gibraltar, whose population, however, is nearly See also:double that of the See also:parent See also:city. A large army of workers come daily from " the Lines " into Gibraltar, returning at " first evening gunfire " shortly after sunset, at which See also:time the See also:gates are closed and locked for the See also:night. Aliens are not allowed to reside in Gibraltar without a See also:special permit, which must be renewed at See also:short intervals. By an order in See also:council, taking effect from See also:November 1900, the like disabilities were extended to British subjects not previously See also:resident. The recorded births, marriages and deaths over a period of 23 years are as follows:— Yearly Average. Births. Marriages. Deaths. 1883-1885 . 621 177 513 1886-1890 . . 603 167 514 1891-1895 . . 626 186 460 1896-1900 . . 641 201 498 1901-1905 . . 629 201 472 940 The numbers of the population from causes which have been referred to are almost stationary, showing a slight tendency to decrease. There are no available See also:statistics later than those of a See also:census taken in 1901, from which it appeared that the population then numbered 27,460, of whom the garrison and its families amounted to 6595, the civil population, being British subjects, to 17,818, and aliens resident under permits to 3047. The latter are chiefly working men and domestic servants. Constitution.—Gibraltar is a crown colony. Of See also:local See also:government properly so called there is none. There is a sanitary See also:commission which is vested with large See also:powers of spending and with the See also:control of buildings and streets and other matters managed by local authorities in See also:England. Its members are appointed by the governor. An See also:appeal from their decisions, so far as they affect individuals, lies to the supreme court. Apart from the garrison and civil officials there are comparatively few members of the Anglican Church. The great See also:majority of the people belong to the Church of See also:Rome. The Jews have four synagogues. The See also:Protestant dissenters have two places of See also:worship, Presbyterian and Wesleyan. See also:Education is not compulsory for the civil population, but most of the See also:children, if not all, receive a See also:fair education in private or private aided See also:schools. The number of the children on the rolls of the private and private aided schools was in 1905: boys, 1504; girls, 1733; See also:total 3237. See also:Commerce.—Except in respect of alcoholic liquors and See also:tobacco Gibraltar has been a See also:free See also:port since the year 1705—a distinction due, it is said, to the refusal of a See also:sultan of See also:Morocco to allow of much-needed exports from Morocco to Gibraltar if full See also:liberty of See also:trade were not granted to his subjects. During the great See also:wars of the beginning of the 19th century trade was most active in Gibraltar, and some large fortunes were made; but trade on a large See also:scale has almost disappeared. At the point of contact of two continents, on the See also:direct line of ocean trade with the far See also:East, in See also:regular See also:steam communication with all the great ports of Europe and with North and South See also:America, Gibraltar, by its position, is fitted to be a trade centre of the world, but the unrest and suspicion engendered in Morocco by the intrigues and designs of the See also:European powers, and excessive protective duties and maladministration in See also:Spain, have done much to extinguish the trade of Gibraltar. There are, however, no trustworthy statistics of imports and exports. Before the year 1898 See also:wine, See also:beer and See also:spirits were the only goods which paid See also:duty. In that year a duty of id. per lb was for the first time put upon tobacco and produced £1444; the duty was, however, in force only for a part of the year; in 1899 the duty, at the same See also:rate, produced £7703. In 1902 the duty on tobacco was raised to 2d. per lb and produced £29,311. In 1905 this duty produced £24,575. The See also:chief business of Gibraltar is the coaling of passing steamers; this gives work to several thousand men. Goods are also landed for re-export to Morocco, but the bulk of the Morocco trade, much of which formerly came to Gibraltar, is now done by lines of steamers trading to and from Morocco direct to British, See also:German or See also:French ports. Nearly all the fresh See also:meat consumed in Gibraltar comes from Morocco, also large quantities of poultry and eggs. A fair amount of See also:retail business is done with the passengers of ocean steamers which See also:call on their way to and from the East and from North and South America. The steam- See also:tonnage cleared annually since 1883 is shown in the following table: Yearly Average. British. Foreign. Total. 1883–1885 . . 3,525,135 817,926 4,343,061 1886–1890. . 4,507,101 908,419 5,415,520 1891–1895 • • 3,710,856 975,390 4,686,246 1896-1900 3,281,165 1,063,367 4,344,532 1901-1905 2,810,849 1,309,649 4,120,498 The See also:main See also:sources of See also:revenue are (i.) duties upon wine, spirits, See also:malt liquors and tobacco; (ii.) port and See also:harbour dues; (iii.) See also:tavern and other licences; (iv.) See also:post and See also:telegraph; (v.) ground and other rents; (vi.) stamps and miscellaneous. The returns before 1898 were made in pesetas (5=$I). In the following table these have been converted into See also:sterling at an average of exchange 30=£1. The See also:money, weights and See also:measures in legal use are British. Before 1898 Spanish money only was in use. The great depreciation of the Spanish currency during the war with the United States led in 1898 to the reintroduction of British currency as the legal See also:tender money of Gibraltar. Notwithstanding this See also:change the Spanish See also:dollar still remains in current use; much of the retail business of the town being done with persons resident in Spain, the dollar fully holds its own. Harbour and Fortifications.—Great changes were made in the defences of Gibraltar early in the 20th century. Guns of the newest types replaced those of older patterns. The heavier pieces instead of being at or near the sea-level, are now high up, many of them on the crest line of the Rock; their lateral range and See also:fire area has thereby been greatly increased and their efficiency improved in See also:combination with an elaborate See also:system of range finding. With the completion of the new dockyard See also:works the value of Gibraltar as a naval base has greatly increased. It can now undertake all the See also:ordinary See also:repairs and coaling of a large See also:fleet. There is an enclosed harbour in which a fleet can safely See also:anchor secure from the attacks of See also:torpedo boats. A See also:mole, at first intended for commercial purposes, closes the north end of the new harbour. The See also:Admiralty, ;however, soon found that their needs had outgrown the first See also:design and the so-called Commercial Mole has been taken over for naval purposes, plans for a new commercial mole being prepared. The funds for these extensive works were provided by the Naval Works See also:Loan Acts of 1895 and subsequent years. The land space available for the purposes of dockyard See also:extension being very limited, a space of about 64 acres was reclaimed from the sea in front of the Alameda and the road to Rosia; some of the land reclaimed was as much as 40 ft. under water. The large quantity of material required for this purpose was obtained by tunnelling the Rock from W. to E. and from quarries above Catalan Bay village, to which See also:access was gained through the tunnel. The graving docks occupy the dug-out site of the former New Mole Parade. There are three of these docks, 850,550 and 450 ft. in length respectively. The largest See also:dock is divisible by a central See also:caisson so that four ships can be docked at one time. The docks are all 95 ft. wide at the entrance with 351 ft. of water over the sills at low-water spring tides. The pumping machinery can empty the largest dock, 105,000 tons of water, in five See also:hours. There are two workshops for the chief constructor's and chief engineer's departments, each 407 ft. long and 322 broad. For the See also:staff captain's See also:department and stores there are buildings with 250;000 ft. of floor space. At the north end of the yard are the administrative offices, slipways for destroyers, a slip for small See also:craft, an See also:ordnance See also:wharf and a See also:boat See also:camber. The reclaimed area is faced with a wharf wall of See also:concrete blocks for an unbroken length of 1600 ft. with 33 ft. of water alongside at low See also:tide; on this wharf are powerful See also:shears and See also:cranes. The enclosed harbour covers 440 acres, 250 of which have a minimum depth of 30 ft. at low water. It is closed on the S. and S.W. by the New Mole (1400 ft.) and the New Mole extension (2700 ft.), together 4100 ft.; on the W. by the Detached Mole (2720 ft.) and on the N. by the Commercial Mole. The New Mole, so called to distinguish it from the Old Mole and its later extension the See also:Devil's See also:Tongue at the north end of the town, is said to have been begun by the Spaniards in 1620. It was successfully assaulted by landing parties from the British fleet under See also:Sir See also:George See also:Rooke at the capture of Gibraltar by the British in 1704. It was extended at different times. and before the beginning of the new works was 1400 ft. in length. The New Mole, with its latest extension, has a width at See also:top of 102 ft. It is formed of rubble stone floated into position in See also:barges. It has a continuous wharf wall on the harbour side 3500 ft. long, with water alongside 30 to 35 ft. deep. On the See also:outer side See also:coal is stacked in sheds extending nearly the whole length of the mole. The Detached Mole is a See also:vertical wall formed of concrete blocks, each See also:block weighing 28 tons. These blocks were built together on the sloping block system upon a rubble Yearly Average. i. ii. in. iv. v. vi. Total. 1886–1890 9,692 17,070 5387 6,805 6485 2,873 48,312 1891–1895 9,250 13,157 4275 7,833 6208 10,113 50,836 1896–1900 14,071 8,435 4136 tot() 16 5924 14,460 57,042 1901-1905 35,900 6,028 3905 12,091 6945 15,859 80,728 Year 1'905 36,554 5,872 4050 16,551 7489 17,007 87,523 See also:foundation of stone deposited by barghs and levelled by See also:divers for the reception of the concrete blocks. The Commercial Mole is now chiefly used by the See also:navy as a convenient wharf for destroyers. It encloses the harbour to the north and extends westward from the end of the Devil's Tongue. At the end nearest the town are large stores; there is also a small wharf on its outer side which is used by the tenders of ocean steamers and by the small boats which ply to See also:Algeciras. This mole is built of rubble, and at its western end it has an See also:arm about 1600 ft. long See also:running S. in the direction of the Detached Mole. Parallel with and inside the western arm are five jetties. The jetties and western arm have extensive coal sheds and are faced with a concrete wharf wall of a total length of 7000 ft. with 20 to 30 ft. of water alongside. The Devil's Tongue was an extension of the Old Mole, constructed during the great siege 1799-1783 in order to bring a flanking fire to bear upon part of the Spanish lines. It owes its name to the success with which it played its destined part. (H. M.*)
See also:History.—Gibraltar was known to the See also:Greek and See also:Roman geographers as Calpe or Alybe, the two names being probably corruptions of the same local (perhaps Phoenician) word. The See also:eminence on the African coast near See also:Ceuta which bears the modern English name of Apes' Hill was then designated Abyla; and Calpe and Abyla, at least according to an See also:ancient and widely current See also:interpretation, formed the renowned Pillars of See also:Hercules (Herculis columnae, `HpaKMovr vri at), which for centuries were the limits of enterprise to the seafaring peoples of the Mediterranean world. The military history of the Rock begins with its capture and fortification by Tariq in 711. In 1309 it was retaken by Alonzo See also:Perez de Guzman for See also: At length in 1502 it was formally incorporated with the domains of the crown. Don Juan tried in 15o6 to recover possession, and added a loth to the list cf sieges. In 154o the garrison had to defend itself against a much more formidable attack (11th siege)—the pirates of See also:Algiers having determined to recover the Rock for Mahomet and themselves. The conflict was severe, but resulted in the repulse of the besiegers. After this the Spaniards made great efforts to strengthen the See also:place, and they succeeded so well that throughout Europe Gibraltar was regarded as impregnable, the engineer See also:Daniel Speckle (1536-1589) being chiefly responsible for the design of the fortifications.
Gibraltar was taken by the allied British and Dutch forces, after a three days' siege, on the 24th of July 1704 (see SPANISH See also:SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE). The capture was made, as the war was being fought, in the interests of See also: During the next twenty years there were endless negotiations for the peaceful surrender of the fortress, varied in 1720 by an abortive attempt at a coup de main, which was thwarted by the resourcefulness of the governor of See also:Minorca (See also:Colonel See also:Kane), who threw reinforcements and supplies into Gibraltar at the See also:critical moment. In 1726 the Spaniards again appealed to arms. But the count of See also:las Torres, who had the chief command, succeeded no better than his predecessors. The place had been strengthened since 1705, and the defence of the garrison under Brigadier See also:Clayton, the See also:lieutenant-governor, Brigadier Kane of Minorca, and the governor, the See also:earl of Port-more, who arrived with reinforcements, was so effective that the See also:armistice of the 12th of June practically put a close to the siege, though two years elapsed before the general pacification ensued. Neither in the War of the See also:Austrian Succession nor in that of 1762 did Spain endeavour to besiege the rock, but the War of American See also:Independence gave her better opportunities, and the siege of great siege of 1779-1783 is justly regarded as one of Gibraltar the most memorable sieges of history. The governor, (1779' General Sir George See also:Augustus Elliot (afterwards See also:Lord 1783). See also:Heathfield), was informed from England on the 6th of July 1779 that hostilities had begun. A short naval engagement in the straits took place on the 11th, and General Elliot made every preparation for resistance. It was not, however, until the See also:month of August that the Spaniards became threatening. The method of the besiegers appeared to be See also:starvation, but the See also:interval between strained relations and war had been well employed by the ships, and supplies were, for the time at any rate, sufficient. While the Spanish siege batteries were being constructed the fortress fired, and many useful See also:artillery experiments were carried out by the garrison at this time and subsequently throughout the siege. On the 14th of November there took place a spirited naval See also:action in which the See also:privateer " See also:Buck," Captain Fagg, forced her way into harbour. This was one of many such incidents, which usually arose from the attempts made from time to time by vessels to introduce supplies from See also:Tangier and elsewhere. See also:December 1779, indeed, was a month of privation for the garrison, though of little actual fighting. In See also:January 178o, on the rumour of an approaching See also:convoy, the See also:price of foods " fell more than two-thirds," and Admiral Sir George See also:Rodney won a great victory over De Langara and entered the harbour. Prince See also: Three more months passed in forced inaction, which the garrison, stinted as it was, endured calmly. Then, on the 12th of April 1781, on the arrival of a British relieving See also:squadron under Admiral Darby, the whole of the Spanish batteries opened fire. Stores were landed in the midst of a heavy See also:bombardment, and much damage was done both to the fortifications and military buildings and to the town. At this time there was a good See also:deal of indiscipline in the garrison, with which General Elliot dealt severely. This was in the last degree necessary, for the bombardment continued up to the 1st of June, after which the rate of the enemy's fire decreased to 500 rounds per See also:day. By the 12th of July it had almost ceased. In September the firing again became intense and the casualties increased, the working parties suffering somewhat heavily. In October there was less See also:expenditure of See also:ammunition, as both sides were now well covered, and in November the governor secretly prepared a great See also:counter-stroke. The sortie made on the night of the 26th-27th of November was brilliantly successful, and the Spanish siege works were mostly destroyed. At the close of the year the garrison was thus again in an excellent position. Early in 1782 a new form of gun-See also:carriage See also:wheel, allowing of a large See also:angle of depression being given, was invented by an officer of the Royal Artillery, and indeed throughout the siege many experiments (such as would nowadays be carried out at a school of gunnery) were made with guns, mountings, ammunition, methods of fire, &c., both in Gibraltar and in the Spanish See also:camp; The gun-carriage referred to enabled 93% of hits to be obtained at 1400 yds. range. In April grates for See also:heating shot were constructed by order of the governor; these were destined to be famous. At the same time it was reported that the duc de Crillon was now to command the besiegers (French and Spaniards) with D'See also:Argon as his chief engineer. The See also:grand attack was now imminent, and preparations were made to repel it (July 1782). The chief feature of the attack was to be, as reported on the 26th of July, ten ships " fortified 6 or 7 ft. thick . . . with See also:green See also:timber bolted with See also:iron, See also:cork and raw hides; which were to carry guns of heavy See also:metal and be See also:bomb-See also:proof on the top with a descent for the shells to slide off; that these vessels . . . were to be moored within half gunshot of the walls," &c. On the other side many of the now existing rock galleries were made about this time. The count of See also:Artois and another French prince arrived in the French lines in August to See also:witness the culminating effort of the besiegers, and some polite See also:correspondence passed between Crillon and the governor (reprinted in Drinkwater, p. 267). The garrison made a preliminary trial of the red-hot shot on the 8th of September, and the success of the experiment not only elated the garrison but was partly instrumental in causing Crillon to hasten the main attack. After a preliminary bombardment the famous battering ships took up their positions in broad daylight on the 13th and opened fire. The British solid shot seem to have failed absolutely to penetrate the massive wooden See also:armour on the sides and the See also:roofs of the battering ships, and about See also:noon the ships had settled down to their work and were See also:shooting coolly and accurately. But between 1 and 2 P.M. the British artillerymen began to use the red-shot freely. All day the 'artillery See also:duel went on, the See also:shore guns, though inferior in number, steadily gaining the upper See also:hand, and the battering ships were in great See also:distress by nightfall. The struggle continued in the dark, the garrison now shooting rapidly and well, and one by one the ten ships were set on fire. Before noon on the 14th the attack had come to an end by the annihilation of the battering fleet, every See also:ship having been blown up or burnt to the water's edge. Upwards of 8300 rounds were expended by the garrison though less than a hundred pieces were in action. The enemy's bombardmentwas, however, resumed and partial engagements continued up to the third naval See also:relief of the fortress by Lord See also:Howe, who won a great victory at sea over the Spaniards. The long siege came to an end on the 6th of See also:February 1783, when the duc de Crillon informed Elliot that the preliminaries of See also:peace had been signed. On the 31st of March the duke visited the fortress, and many courtesies passed between the See also:late enemies. Captain (after-wards Colonel) John Drinkwater (1762-1844), the historian of the siege, first published his work in 1785. A new edition of A History of the Siege of Gibraltar was published in 1905. The history of the four eventful years' siege is fully detailed also in the Memoir, attached to Green's Siege of Gibraltar (1784), of its gallant defender Sir George Augustus Elliot, afterwards Lord Heathfield, whose military skill and moral courage place him among the best soldiers and noblest men of his time. Since 1783 the history of Gibraltar has been comparatively uneventful. In the beginning of 18oI there were rumours of a Spanish and French attack, but the Spanish ships were defeated off Algeciras in June by Admiral See also:Saumarez. Improvements in the fortifications, See also:maintenance of military discipline and legislation in regard to trade and See also:smuggling, are the See also:principal matters of recent interest. 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