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ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
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See also: In 1728 he ran away, the truancy being by his own See also:account unintentional in the first instance, and due to the fact of the city See also:gates being shut earlier than usual. Then began an extraordinary See also:series of wanderings and adventures, for much of which there is no authority but his cwn Confessions. He first See also:fell in with some proselytizers of the See also:Roman faith at Confignon in See also:Savoy, and by them he was sent to Madame de Warens at See also:Annecy, a See also:young and See also:pretty widow who was herself a convert. Her See also:influence, however, which was to be so See also:great, was not immediately exercised, and he was passed on to See also:Turin, where there was an institution specially devoted to the reception of neophytes. His experiences here were unsatisfactory, but he abjured duly and was rewarded by being presented with twenty francs and sent about his business. He wandered about in Turin for some time, and at last established himself as See also:footman to a Madame de Vercellis. Here occurred the famous incident of the See also:theft of a ribbon, of which he accused a girl fellow-servant. But, though he kept his See also:place by this piece of cowardice, Madame de Vercellis died not See also:long afterwards and he was turned off. He found another place with the See also:Comte de Gouvon, but lost this also through coxcombry. Then he resolved to return to Madame de Warens at Annecy. The See also:chronology of all these events, as narrated by himself, is somewhat obscure, but they seem to have occupied about three years. Even then Rousseau did not See also:settle at once in the anomalous but to him charming position of domestic See also:lover to this See also:lady, who, nominally a converted See also:Protestant, was in reality, as manywomen of her time were, a See also:kind of deist, with a theory of See also:noble sentiment and a practice of libertinism tempered by See also:good nature. It used to be held that in her conjugal relations she was more sinned against than sinning. But See also:modern investigations seem to show that M. de Vuarrens (which is' said to be the correct spelling of the name) was an unfortunate See also:husband, and was deserted and robbed by his wife. However, she welcomed Rousseau kindly, thought it necessary to See also:complete his See also:education, and he was sent to the seminarists of St Lazare to be improved in See also:classics, and also to a See also:music master. In one of his incomprehensible freaks he set off for Lyons, and, after abandoning his See also:companion in an epileptic See also:fit, returned to Annecy to find Madame de Warens gone. Then for some months he relapsed into the See also:life of vagabondage, varied by improbable adventures, which (according to his own statement) he so often pursued. Hardly knowing anything of music, he attempted to give lessons and a See also:concert at See also:Lausanne; and he actually taught at See also:Neuchatel. Then he became, or says he became, secretary to a See also:Greek See also:archimandrite who was travelling in See also:Switzerland to collect subscriptions for the rebuilding of the See also:Holy See also:Sepulchre; then he went to See also:Paris, and, with recommendations from the French See also:ambassador at See also:Soleure, saw something of good society; then he returned on See also:foot through Lyons to Savoy, See also:hearing that Madame de Warens was at See also:Chambery. This was in 1732, and Rousseau, who for a time had unimportant employments in the service of the Sardinian See also:crown, was shortly in-stalled by Madame de Warens, whom he still called Maman, as amant en titre in her singular See also:household, wherein she diverted herself with him, with music and with See also:chemistry. In 1736 Madame de Warens, partly for Rousseau's See also:health, took a See also:country house, See also:Les Charmettes, a short distance from Chambery. Here in summer, and in the See also:town during See also:winter, Rousseau led a delightful life, which he has delightfully described. In a desultory. way he did a good See also:deal of See also:reading, but in 1738 his health again became See also:bad, and he was recommended to go to See also:Montpellier. By his own account this See also:journey to Montpellier was in reality a voyage d Cythere in See also:company with a certain Madame de Larnage. This being so, he could hardly complain when on returning he found that his See also:official position in Madame de Warens's household had been taken by a See also:person named Vintzenried. He was, however, less likely than most men to endure the position of second in command, and in 1740 he became See also:tutor at Lyons to the See also:children of M. de Mably, not the well-known writer of that name, but his and See also:Condillac's See also:elder See also:brother. But Rousseau did not like teaching and was a bad teacher, and after a visit to Les Charmettes, finding that his place there was finally occupied, he once more went to Paris in 1741. He was not without recommendations. But a new See also:system of musical notation which he thought he had discovered was unfavourably received by the Academie See also:des sciences, where it was read in See also:August 1742, and he was unable to obtain pupils. Madame See also:Dupin, however, to whose house he had obtained the entry, See also:pro-cured him the See also:honourable if not very lucrative See also:post of secretary to M. de Montaigu, ambassador at See also:Venice. With him he stayed for about eighteen months, and has as usual See also:infinite complaints to make of his employer and some See also:strange stories to tell. At length he threw up his situation and returned to Paris (1745). Up to this time—that is to say, till his See also:thirty-third See also:year—Rousseau's life, though continuously described by himself, was of the kind called subterranean, and the account of it must be taken with considerable allowances. From this time, how-ever, he is more or less in view; and, though at least two events of his life-his See also:quarrel with See also:Diderot and.his See also:death—aresubjects of dispute, its See also:general See also:history can be checked and followed with reasonable confidence. On his return to Paris he renewed his relations with the Dupin family and with the See also:literary See also:group of Diderot, to which he had already been introduced by M. de Mably's letters. He had an See also:opera, Les See also:Muses galantes, privately represented; he copied music for See also:money, and received from Madame Dupin and her son-in-See also:law M. de Francueil a small but See also:regular See also:salary as secretary. He lived at the Hotel St Quentin for a time, and once more arranged for himself an equivocal domestic See also:establishment. His See also:mistress, whom towards the See also:close of his life he married after a fashion, was Therese le Vasseur, a servant at the See also:inn, whom he first met in 1743. She had little beauty, no education or understanding, and few charms that his See also:friends could discover, besides which she had a detestable mother, who was the bane of Rousseau's life. But he made himself happy with her, and (according to Rousseau's account, the accuracy of which has been questioned) five children were born to them, who were all consigned to the foundling See also:hospital. This disregard of responsibility was partly punished by the use his critics made of it when he became celebrated as a writer on education and a preacher of the domestic affections.' Diderot, with whom from 1741 onwards he became more and more See also:familiar, admitted him as a contributor to the Encyclopedia. He formed new musical projects, and he was introduced by degrees to many See also:people of See also:rank and influence, among them Madame d'See also:Epinay (q.v.), to whom in 1747 he was introduced by her lover M. de Francueil. It was not, however, till 1749 that Rousseau made his See also:mark as a writer. The See also:academy of See also:Dijon offered a See also:prize for an See also:essay on the effect of the progress of See also:civilization on morals. Rousseau took up the subject, See also:developed his famous See also:paradox of the superiority of the See also:savage See also:state, won the prize, and, See also:publishing his essay (Discours sur les arts et sciences) next year, became famous. The anecdotage as to the origin of this famous essay is voluminous. It is agreed that the See also:idea was suggested when Rousseau went to pay a visit to Diderot, who was in See also:prison at See also:Vincennes for his Lettre sur les aveugles. Rousseau says he thought of the paradox on his way down; See also:Morellet and others say that he thought of treating the subject in the See also:ordinary fashion and was laughed at by Diderot, who showed him the advantages of the less obvious treatment. Diderot himself, who in such matters, is almost absolutely trustworthy, does not claim the See also:suggestion, but uses words which imply that it was at least partly his. It is very like him. The essay, however, took the artificial and crotchety society of the See also:day by See also:storm. Francueil gave Rousseau a valuable post as See also:cashier in the See also:receiver-general's See also:office. But he resigned it either from conscientiousness, or See also:crotchet, or nervousness at responsibility, or indolence, or more probably from a mixture of all four. He went back to his music-copying, but the salons of the day were determined to have his society, and for a time they had it. In 1752 he brought out at See also:Fontainebleau an operetta, the Devin 4u See also:village, which was successful. He received a See also:hundred See also: He was a penniless See also:man of letters, with theories as to state See also:maintenance of children; and Therese was a consenting party. Rousseau, however, never saw any of the alleged children; and Mrs See also:Macdonald has shown good cause for believing that their existence was a myth, an See also:imposition on Rousseau's credulity, invented by Therese and her mother to make the tie more binding. (H. CH.) 2 Rousseau's influence on French music was greater than might have been expected from his very imperfect education; in truth, he was a musician by natural See also:instinct only, but his feeling for See also:art was very strong, and, though capricious, based upon true perceptions of the good and beautiful. The system of notation (by figures) concerning which he read a See also:paper before the Academie des Sciences, August 22, 1742, was ingenious, but practically worse than useless, and failed to attract See also:attention, though the paper was published in 1743 under the See also:title of Dissertation sur la musique moderne. In the famous " guerre des buffons," he took the See also:part of the " buffonists," so named in consequence of their See also:attachment to the See also:Italian " opera buffa," as opposed to the true French opera; and, in his Lettre sur la musique francaise, published in 1753, he indulged in a violent tirade against French music, which he declared to be so contemptible as to See also:lead to the conclusion " that the French neither have, nor ever will have, any music of their own, or at least that, if they ever do have any, it will be so much the worse for them." This See also:silly See also:libel so enraged the performers at the Opera that they hanged and burnedwith him, the Dijon academy, which had founded his fame, announced the subject of " The Origin of Inequality," on which he wrote a discourse which was unsuccessful, but at least equal to the former in merit. During a visit to Geneva in 1754 Rousseau saw his old friend and love Madame de Warens (now reduced in circumstances and having lost all her charms), while after abjuring his See also:abjuration of Protestantism he was enabled to take up his freedom as citizen of Geneva, to which his birth entitled him and of which he was proud. Shortly afterwards, returning to Paris, he accepted a cottage near See also:Montmorency (the celebrated Hermitage) which Madame d'Epinay had fitted up for him, and established himself there in April 1756. He spent little more than a year there, but it was an important year. Here he wrote La Nouvelle Heloise; here he indulged in the See also:passion which that novel partly represents, his love for Madame d'Huodetot, See also:sister-in-law of Madame d'Epinay, a lady young and amiable, but See also:plain, who had a husband and a lover (St See also:Lambert), and whom Rousseau's devotion seems to have partly pleased and partly annoyed. Here too arose the obscure triangular quarrel between Diderot, Rousseau and See also:Frederick Melchior See also:Grimm, which ended Rousseau's sojourn at the Hermitage. The supposition least favourable to Rousseau is that it was due to one of his numerous fits of See also:half-insane petulance and indignation at the obligations which he was nevertheless always ready to incur. That most favourable to him is that he was expected to lend himself in a more or less complaisant manner to assist and See also:cover Madame d'Epinay's adulterous See also:affection for Grimm. At any See also:rate, Rousseau quitted the Hermitage in the winter of 1757-58, and established himself at Montlouis in the neighbourhood. Hitherto Rousseau's behaviour had frequently made him enemies, but his writings had for the most part made him friends. The quarrel with Madame d'Epinay, with Diderot, and through them with the philosophe party reversed this. In 1758 appeared his Lettre a d'See also:Alembert contre les See also:spectacles, written in the winter of the previous year at Montlouis. This was at once an attack on See also:Voltaire, who was giving theatrical representations at Les Deices, on D'Alembert, who had condemned the See also:prejudice against the See also:stage in the Encyclopedia, and on one of the favourite amusements of the society of the day. Voltaire's strong point was not forgiveness, and, though Rousseau no doubt exaggerated the efforts of his " enemies," he was certainly henceforward as See also:obnoxious to the philosophe coterie as to the orthodox party. He still, however, had no lack of patrons—he never had—though his perversity made him quarrel with all in turn. The amiable See also:duke and duchess of Luxembourg, who were his neighbours at Montlouis, made his acquaintance, or rather forced theirs upon him, and he was industrious in his literary work—indeed, most of his best books were produced during his stay in the neighbourhood of its author in effigy. Rousseau revenged himself by See also:printing his See also:clever See also:satire entitled Lettre d'un symphoniste de l'Academie Royale de Musique a ses camarades de l'orchestre. His Lettre a M. See also:Burney is of a very different type, and does full See also:justice to the genius of See also:Gluck. His articles on music in the Encyclopedia deal very superficially with the subject; and his Dictionnaire de musique (Geneva, 1767), though admirably written, is not trustworthy, either as a See also:record of facts or as a collection of See also:critical essays. In all these See also:works the imperfection of his musical education is painfully apparent, and his compositions betray an equal lack of knowledge, though his refined See also:taste is as clearly displayed there as is his literary See also:power in the Letters and See also:Dictionary. His first opera, Les Muses galantes, privately prepared at the house of La Popeliniere, attracted very little attention; but Le Devin du village, given at Fontainebleau in 1752, and at the Academie in 1753, achieved a great and well-deserved success. Though very unequal, and exceedingly See also:simple both in See also:style and construction, it contains some charming melodies, and is written throughout in the most refined taste. His See also:Pygmalion (1775) is a See also:melodrama without singing. Some See also:posthumous fragments of another opera, See also:Daphnis et Chloe, were printed in 178o; and in 1781 appeared Les Consolations des miseres de ma See also:vie, a collection of about one hundred songs and other fugitive pieces of very unequal merit. The popular See also:air known as " Rousseau's See also:Dream " is not contained in this collection, and cannot be traced back farther than J. B. See also:Cramer's celebrated " See also:Variations." M. Castil-See also:Blaze has accused Rousseau of extensive plagiarisms (or worse) in Le Devin du village and Pygmalion, but apparently without sufficient cause. (W. S. R.)
Montmorency. A letter to Voltaire on his poem about the See also:Lisbon See also:earthquake embittered the dislike between the two, being surreptitiously published. La Nouvelle Heloise appeared in the same year (1760), and it was immensely popular. In 1762 appeared the Contrat social at See also:Amsterdam, and Emile, which was published both in the See also:Low Countries and at Paris. For the latter the author received 6000 livres, for the Contrat See also:rood.
Julie, ou La Nouvelle Heloise, is a novel written in letters describing the loves of a man of low position and a girl of rank, her subsequent See also:marriage to a respectable freethinker of her own station, the See also:mental agonies of her lover, and the partial appeasing of the distresses of the lovers by the influence of noble sentiment and the good offices of a philanthropic Englishman. It is too long, the sentiment is overstrained, and severe moralists have accused it of a certain complaisance in dealing with amatory errors; but it is full of pathos and knowledge of the human See also:heart. The Contrat social, as its title implies, endeavours to See also:base all See also:government on the consent, See also:direct or implied, of the governed, and indulges in much ingenious See also:argument to get rid of the See also:practical inconveniences of such a suggestion. Emile, the second title of which is De ''Education, is much more of a See also:treatise than of a novel, though a certain amount of narrative See also:interest is kept up throughout.
Rousseau's reputation was now higher than ever, but the term of the See also:comparative prosperity which he had enjoyed for nearly ten years was at See also:hand. The Contrat social was obviously See also:anti-monarchic; the Nouvelle Heloise was said to be immoral; the sentimental See also:deism of the " Profession du See also:vicaire Savoyard " in Emile irritated equally the philosophe party and the See also: They also furnished him with means of See also:flight, and he made for Yverdun in the territory of See also:Bern, whence he transferred himself to Motiers in Neuchatel, which then belonged to See also:Prussia. Frederick II. was not indisposed to protect the persecuted when it cost him nothing and might bring him fame, and in See also:Marshal See also:Keith, the See also:governor of Neuchatel, Rousseau found a true and See also:firm friend. He was, however, unable to be quiet or to practise any of those more or less pious frauds which were customary at the time with the unorthodox. The See also:archbishop of Paris had published a See also:pastoral against him, and Rousseau did not let the year pass without a Lettre a M. de See also:Beaumont. The See also:council of Geneva had joined in the condemnation of Emile, and Rousseau first solemnly renounced his citizenship, and then, in the Lettres de la montagne (1763), attacked the council and the Genevan constitution unsparingly. All this excited public See also:opinion against him, and gradually he See also:grew unpopular in his own neighbourhood. This unpopularity is said on uncertain authority to have culminated in a nocturnal attack on his house. At any rate he thought he was menaced if he was not, and migrated to the Ile St See also:Pierre in the See also:Lake of See also:Bienne, where he once more for a short, and the last, time enjoyed that idyllic existence which he loved. But the Bernese government ordered him to quit its territory. He was for some time uncertain where to go, and thought of See also:Corsica (to join See also:Paoli) and See also:Berlin. But finally See also:David See also:Hume offered him, See also:late in 1765, an See also:asylum in See also:England, and he accepted. He passed through Paris, where his presence was tolerated for a time, and landed in England on See also:January 13, 1766. Therese travelled separately, and was en-trusted to' the charge of See also: He was received in France by the See also:marquis de See also:Mirabeau (father of the great Mirabeau), of whom he soon had enough, then by the prince de Conti at Trye. From this place he again fled and wandered about for some time in a wretched fashion, still writing the Confessions, constantly receiving generous help, and always quarrelling with, or at least suspecting, the helpers. In the summer of 177o he re-turned to Paris, resumed music-copying, and was on the whole happier than he had been since he had to leave Montlouis. He had by this time married Therese le Vasseur, or had at least gone through some See also:form of marriage with her. Many of the best-known stories of Rousseau's life date from this last time, when he was tolerably accessible to visitors, though clearly half-insane. He finished his Confessions, wrote his Dialogues (the interest of which is not quite equal to the promise of their curious sub-title, Rousseau See also:juge de Jean Jacques), and began his Reveries du promeneur See also:solitaire, intended as a sequel and See also:complement to the Confessions, and one of the best of all his books. It should be said that besides these, which complete the See also:list of his See also:principal works, he has left a very large number of See also:minor works and a considerable See also:correspondence. During this time he lived in the See also:Rue Platiere, which is now named after him. But his suspicions of See also:secret enemies grew stronger rather than weaker, and at the beginning of 1778 he was glad to accept the offer of M. de See also:Girardin, a See also:rich financier, and occupy a cottage at Ermenonville. The country was beautiful; but his old terrors revived, and his woes were complicated by the alleged inclination of Therese for one of M. de Girardin's See also:stable-boys. On See also:July 2nd he died in a manner which has been much discussed, suspicions of See also:suicide being circulated at the time by Grimm and others.' There is little doubt that for the last ten or fifteen years of his life, if not from the time of his quarrel with Diderot and Madame d'Epinay, Rousseau was not wholly sane—the combined influence of late and unexpected literary fame and of See also:constant solitude and discomfort acting upon his excitable temperament so as to overthrow the See also:balance, never very stable, of his See also:fine and acute but unrobust See also:intellect. He was by no means the only man of letters of his time who had to submit to something like persecution. See also:Freron on the orthodox See also:side had his See also:share of it, as well as Voltaire, Helvetius, Diderot and See also:Montesquieu on that of the innovators: But Rousseau had not, like Montesquieu, a position which guaranteed him from serious danger; he was not wealthy like Helvetius; he had not the wonderful suppleness and trickiness which even without his See also:wealth would probably have defended Voltaire himself; and he lacked entirely the " bottom " of Freron and Diderot. When he was molested he could only shriek at his 1 The See also:local inquiry into the death, on the following day, resulted in a certificate that he died of See also:apoplexy; but the See also:story that he shot himself persisted. In See also:December 1897 Rousseau's See also:coffin in the See also:Pantheon was opened, and M. See also:Berthelot, who examined the See also:skull, found no trace of injury by abullet; and on the whole there is no See also:reason to doubt the See also:verdict of the See also:original inquiry at Ermenonville. (H. Ce.) enemies and suspect his friends. His moral See also:character was undoubtedly weak in other ways than this, but it is See also:fair to remember that but for his astounding Confessions the more disgusting parts of it would not have been known, and that these Confessions were written, if not under See also:hallucination, at any rate in circumstances entitling the self-condemned criminal to the benefit of considerable doubt. If Rousseau had held his See also:tongue, he might have stood See also:lower as a man of letters; he would pretty certainly have stood higher as a man. He was, moreover, really sinned against, if still more sinning. The conduct of Grimm to him was certainly bad; and, though Walpole was not his See also:personal friend, a worse See also:action than his famous letter, considering the well-known See also:idiosyncrasy of the subject, would be difficult to find. It was his own See also:fault that he saddled himself with the Le Vasseurs, but their conduct was probably, if not certainly, ungrateful in the extreme. Only excuses can be made for him; but the excuses for a man born, as Hume after the quarrel said of him, " without a skin " are numerous and strong. His See also:peculiar reputation increased after his death. During his life his personal peculiarities and the fact that his opinions were nearly as obnoxious to the one' party as to the other worked against him, but it was not so after his death. The men of the Revolution regarded him with something like See also:idolatry, and his literary merits conciliated many who were far from idolizing him as a revolutionist. His style was taken up by Bernardin de See also:Saint Pierre and by See also:Chateaubriand. It was employed for purposes quite different from those to which he had himself applied it, and the reaction triumphed by the very arms which had been most powerful in the hands of the Revolution. See also:Byron's fervid See also:panegyric enlisted on his side all who admired Byron—that is to say, the See also:majority of the younger men and See also:women of See also:Europe between 182o and 1850—and thus different sides of his tradition were continued for a full See also:century after the publication of his See also:chief books. His religious unorthodoxy was condoned because he never scoffed; his See also:political heresies, after their first effect was over, seemed harmless from the very want of See also:logic and practical spirit in them, while part at least of his literary secret was the See also:common See also:property of almost every one who attempted literature.
In See also:religion Rousseau was undoubtedly what he has been called above—a sentimental deist; but no one who reads him with the smallest attention can fail to see that sentimentalism was the essence, deism the See also:accident of his creed. In his time orthodoxy at once generous and intelligent hardly existed in France. 'There were ignorant persons who were sincerely orthodox; there were intelligent persons who pretended to be so. But between the time of See also:Massillon and D'See also:Aguesseau and the time of See also:Lamennais and See also:Joseph de See also:Maistre the class of men of whom in England See also:Berkeley, See also: If his practice fell far short even of his own arbitrary See also:standard of morality, as much may be said of persons far more dogmatically orthodox. In politics, on the other hand, Rousseau was a sincere and, as far as in him See also:lay, a convinced republican. He had no great See also:tincture of learning, he was by no means a profound logician, and he was impulsive and emotional in the extreme—characteristics which in political matters predispose the subject to the preference of equality above all political requisites. He saw that under the French See also:monarchy the actual result was the greatest misery of the greatest number, and, he did not look much further. The Contrat social is for the political student one of the most curious and interesting books existing. Historically it is null; logically it is full of gaping flaws, practically its manipulations of the volonte de tous and the volonte generale are clearly insufficient to obviate anarchy. But its mixture of real eloquence and apparent cogency is exactly such asalways carries a multitude with it, if only for a time. Moreover, in some minor branches of politics and See also:economics Rousseau was a real reformer. Visionary as his educational schemes (chiefly promulgated in Emile) are in parts, they are admirable in others, and his protest against mothers refusing to See also:nurse their children See also:hit a blot in French life which is not removed yet, and has always been a source of weakness to the nation. But it is as a literary man pure and simple—that is to say, as an exponent rather than as an originator of ideas—that Rousseau is most noteworthy, and that he has exercised most influence. The first thing noticeable about him is that he defies all customary and See also:mechanical See also:classification. He is not a dramatist—his work as such is insignificant—nor a novelist, for, though his two chief works except the Confessions are called novels, Emile is one only in name, and La Nouvelle Heloise is as a story diffuse, prosy and awkward to. a degree. He was without command of poetic form, and he could only be called a philosopher in an See also:age when the term was used with such meaningless laxity as was customary in the 18th century. If he must be classed, he was before all things a describer—a describer of the passions of the human heart and of the beauties of nature. In the first part of his vocation the novelists of his own youth, such as See also:Marivaux, See also:Richardson and See also:Prevost, may be said to have shown him the way, though he improved greatly upon them; in the second he was almost a creator. In combining the two and expressing the effect of nature on the feelings and of the feelings on the aspect of nature he was absolutely without a forerunner or 'a See also:model. And, as literature since his time has been chiefly differentiated from literature before it by the See also:colour and See also:tone resulting from this See also:combination, Rousseau may be said to hold, as an influence, a place almost unrivalled in literary history. The defects of all sentimental writing are noticeable in him, but they are palliated by his wonderful feeling, and by the passionate sincerity even of his insincere passages. Some cavils have been made against his French, but none of much See also:weight or importance. And in such passages as the famous " Voila de la pervenche " of the Confessions, as the description of the isle of St Pierre in the Reveries, as some of the letters in the Nouvelle Helo'ise and others, he had achieved See also:absolute perfection in doing what he intended to do. The reader, as it has been said, may think he might have done something else with See also:advantage, but he can hardly think that he could have done this thing better. (G. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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