CRUSADES , the name given to the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

Under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

One can readily understand the popularity of the Crusades, when one reflects that they permitted men to get to the other world by fighting hard on See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

2. See also:

• HISTORICAL

Western Christians could not but feel hampered and checked in their natural See also:

• MOVEMENT

The Pisans conquered See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

In 1074 Gregory actually assembled a considerable See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

It is the Church which creates the First Crusade, because the clergy believes in penitentiary pilgrimages, and the war against the Seljuks can be turned into a pilgrimage to the Sepulchre; because, again, it wishes to direct the fighting instinct of the laity, and the consecrating name of Jerusalem provides an unimpeachable channel; above all, because the papacy desires a perfect and universal Church, and a perfect and universal Church must rule in the Holy Land. But it would be a See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

It is indeed true that to thousands the hope of acquiring spiritual merit must have been a great motive; it is also true, as the records of crusading sermons show, that there was a strong See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

Fixing the 15th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

the crusading armies were recruited in France, or that they were led by men of the stock of the d'Hautevilles. Meanwhile newly-conquered England had its own problems to solve; and Germany, torn by See also:

• CIVIL

These two divisions (which in spite of good treatment by Alexius began to commit excesses against the Greeks) See also:

• UNITED

The legend has been followed by modern historians; but in point of fact Peter is a figure of secondary importance. (See PETER THE HERMIT.)1097, a great host, which Fulcher computes at 600,000 men (I. c. iv.), Urban II. at 300,000, and which was probably some 150,000 strong.' Before we follow this host into Asia, we may pause to inquire into the various factors which would deter-mine its course, or condition its activity. On the Western side, and among the crusaders themselves, there were two factors of importance, already mentioned above—the aims of the adventurer prince, and the interests of the Italian merchant; v hile on the Eastern side there are again two—the policy of the Greeks, and the condition of the Mahommedan East. We have already seen that among the princes who joined the First Crusade there were some who were rather politiques than devots, and who aimed at the acquisition of temporal profit as well as of spiritual merit. Of these the type—and, it may almost be said, the inspirer of the rest—was Bohemund. From the first he had an Eastern principality in his mind's eye; and if we may See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

Confronted by crusaders where he had asked for auxiliaries, Alexius had two alternative policies presented to his choice. He might, in the first place, have frankly admitted that the crusaders were independent allies, and treating them as equals, he might have waged war in See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

But though the leaders of the First Crusade did not succeed in utilizing the dissensions of the Mahommedans as fully as they desired, it still remains true that these dissensions very largely explain their success. It was the disunion of the Syrian amirs, and the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

At the end of October the crusaders came into position before Antioch, which was held by Yagi-sian, and began the siege of the city, which lasted from October 2r, 1097, to June 3, 1098. The great figure in the siege was naturally Bohemund (who had also been the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

From the first the Crusade, however clerical in its conception, was largely See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

Strong generals were needed in the See also:

• SEPARATE

With the discovery of the Lance, which became as it were a Provencal asset, Count Raymund assumes a new importance. Mingled with the religiosity of his nature there was much obstinacy and self-seeking; and when Kerbogha was finally repelled, he began to dispute the possession of Antioch with Bohemund, See also:

• PLEADING (Fr. plaider, plaidoyer)

So, on that day of July, the First Crusade came to an end. It remained to determine the future See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

Bohemund procured the election of Dagobert, the archbishop of See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

But in IIO2 the struggle ceased with the deposition of the patriarch and the victory of the king; and though it was renewed for a time by the patriarch Stephen in the reign of Baldwin II. (1128-1130), the new struggle was of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

residence in Jerusalem a reason for the ultimate supremacy of the Lotharingian kings. Jerusalem attracted the flow of pilgrims from the West as Antioch never could; and though the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

No wonder that Bohemund flung himself in revenge on the Eastern empire in Iso8—only, however, to meet with a humiliating defeat at Durazzo. Thus it was that Baldwin waxed while Bohemund waned. The growth of Baldwin's kingdom, as it was suggested above, owed more to the interests of Italian traders than it did to crusading zeal. In Iwo, indeed, it might appear that a new Crusade from the West, which the capture of Antioch in 1098 had begun, and the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 had finally set in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

The land was richer in the north: it was protected by its connexion with Cyprus and See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

With all its length, the territory had but little breadth: towards the north it was bounded by the amirate of Damascus; in the centre, it spread little, if at all, beyond the See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

During this See also:

• PROCESS

The Latin power thus established and organized in the East had to See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

But the dissensions of the Mahommedans made their attacks unavailing; in 1115, for instance, we find Antioch actually aided by Ilghazi and Tughtigin against Aksunkur of Mosul. Again, in the reign of Baldwin II., there was steady fighting in the north; Roger of Antioch was defeated by Ilghazi at Balat in 1119, and Baldwin II. himself was captured by Balak, the successor of Ilghazi, in 1123, but on the whole the Franks held the upper hand. Baldwin conquered part of the territory of Aleppo (in 1121 and the following years), and extorted a See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

The union of Mardin and Aleppo under the sway of these two amirs, connecting as it did See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

As early as 1133 the alliance of the two powers had been concluded; and in 1140 the alliance was solemnly renewed between Fulk and the vizier. Henceforth this alliance was a dominant factor in politics. One of the great mistakes made by the Franks was the See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

On the whole, the interference of the Comneni, if it checked Zengi for the moment in 1138, may be said to have ultimately weakened and distracted the Franks, and to have helped to cause the loss of Edessa (1144), which marks the turning-point in the history of the kingdom of Jerusalem. 5. Organization of the Kingdom.—Before we turn to describe the Second Crusade, which the loss of Edessa provoked, and to trace the fall of the kingdom, which the Second Crusade rather hastened than hindered, we may pause at this point to consider the organization of the Frankish colonies in Syria. The first question which arises is that of the relation of the kingdom of Jerusalem to the three counties or principalities of Antioch, Tripoli and Edessa, which acknowledged their dependence upon it. The degree of this dependence was always a matter of dispute. The rights of the king of Jerusalem chiefly appear when there is a vacancy or a minority in one of the principalities, or when there is dissension either inside one of the principalities or between two of the princes. On the death of one of the princes without heirs of full age, the kings of Jerusalem were entitled to act as regents, as Baldwin II. did twice at Antioch, in M9and 1130; but the kings regarded this right of regency as a See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

In Norman England the king insisted on his rights; in Frankish Jerusalem the barons insisted on his duties. The circumstances of the foundation of the kingdom explain its characteristics. As the crusaders advanced to Jerusalem, says Raymund of Agiles (c. xxxiii.), it was their rule that the first-corner had the right to each See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

See also:

• AMALRIC
• AMALRIC (Fr. AMAURY) OF BENA (d. c. 1204-1207)

To all these various forces must be added the knights and native levies of the great orders, whose masters were practically independent sovereigns like the princes of Antioch and Tripoli; 3 and with these the See also:

• TOTAL

2 The holders of fiefs (sodeers) both held fiefs of land and received pay; the paid force of soudoyers only received pay. An instance of the latter is furnished by John of Margat, a vassal of the See also:

• SEIGNORY, or SEIGNIORY (Fr. seigneur, lord; Lat. senior, elder)

(I) The assizes of the high court are preserved for us in See also:

• WORKS

The fact is that until the 13th century the Franks lived consuetudinibus antiquis et jure non scriplo. They preferred an unwritten law, as Prutz suggests, partly because it suited the barristers (who often belonged to the baronage, for the Frankish nobles were " great pleaders in court and out of court "), and partly because the high court was left unbound so long as there was no written code. In the 13th century it became necessary for the legists to codify, as it were, the unwritten law, because the upheavals of the times necessitated the fixing of some rules in See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

The law which is expounded in these assizes is a mixture of Frankish law with the Graeco-Roman law of the Eastern empire which prevailed among the native population of Syria. In regard to both assizes, it is most important to bear in mind that we possess not laws, but law-books or custumals—records made by lawyers for their See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

Locally, the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

Distinct from all these courts, if similar in its sphere, is the court which the Italian quarter generally enjoyed in each town under its own consuls—a court privileged to try all but the graver cases, like murder, See also:

• THEFT

The richest proprietor in the Holy Land,' but practically immune from any charges on its property, the Church helped, unconsciously, to ruin the kingdom which it should have supported above all others. It refused to throw its weight into the scale, and to strengthen the hands of the king against an over-mighty nobility. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the Church did not, after the first struggle between Dagobert and Baldwin I., actively oppose by any hierarchical pretensions the authority of the crown. The assizes may speak of patriarch and king as conjoint seigneurs in Jerusalem; but as a matter of fact the king could secure the nomination of his own patriarch, and after Dagobert the patriarchs are, with the temporary exception of Stephen in 1128, the confidants and supporters of the kings. It was the two great orders of the Templars and the Hospitallers which were, in reality, most dangerous to the kingdom. Honeycombed as it was by immunities—of seigneurs, of Italian quarters, of the clergy—the kingdom was most seriously impaired by these overweening immunists, who, half-lay and half-clerical, took advantage of their ambiguous position to escape from the duties of either character. They built up great estates, especially in the principality of Tripoli; they quarrelled with one another, until their dissensions prevented any vigorous action; they struggled against the claims of the clergy to See also:

• TITHES

The See also:

• CLIMATE

Their sideboards were covered with the See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

In the kingdom matters were almost worse. There was hardly any regular succession to the throne; and Jerusalem, as See also:

• STUBBS [STUBBES], PHILIP (c. 1555-c. 161o)
• STUBBS [STUnnE], JOHN
• STUBBS, WILLIAM (1825-1901)

In 1143 began the reign of the first native king; 3 and about this date may be placed the final organization of the kingdom, witnessed by the completion of its body of customary law. At the same date, however, the decline of the kingdom also begins; the fall of Edessa is the beginning of the end. In 1143 John Comnenus and Fulk had just died, and Zengi, seeing his way clear, threw himself on the great Christian outpost, against which the tides of Mahommedan attack had so often vainly surged, and finally entered on Christmas Day 1144. Two years later Zengi died; but he left an able successor in his son, Nureddin, and an attempt to recover Edessa was successfully repelled in November 1146. Not only so, but in the spring of 1147 the Franks were unwise enough to allow the hope of gaining two small towns to induce them to break the vital alliance with Damascus. Thus, in itself, the position of affairs in the Holy Land in 1147 was certainly ominous; and the kingdom might well seem dependent for its safety on such aid as it might receive from the West. Early in 1145 news had come from Antioch to See also:

• EUGENIUS

Prutz regards the manorial system as oppressive. Absentee landlords, he thinks, See also:

• RACK

Already at the final meeting at See also:

• ETAMPES, ANNE DE PISSELEU

We have already noticed the great if disastrous Crusade of 1100-1101, and the Venetian Crusade of 1123–1124; and we may also refer to the Crusade of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

The position of the Franks in the Holy Land was not improved by the attack on Damascus; while the ignominious failure of a Crusade led by two kings brought the whole crusading movement into discredit in western Europe, and it was utterly in vain that See also:

• SUGER (c. 1081-1151)

For the future, events hinged on the situation of affairs in Egypt, and in Egypt the fate of the kingdom of Jerusalem was finally decided (see EGYPT: History, " Mahommedan Period "). There was a race for the possession of the country between Nureddin's See also:

• LIEUTENANT

Into the vicissitudes of the fight it is not necessary here to enter; but in the issue Nureddin won, in spite of the support which Manuel gave to Amalric. Nureddin's Kurdish lieutenant, Shirguh, succeeded in establishing in power the vizier whom he favoured, and finally in becoming vizier himself (January 1169) ; and when he died, his nephew Saladin (See also:

• SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895)

Repeated appeals had been sent to the West from the beginning of the Egyptian affair (1163) onwards; while in 1184–1185 a great See also:

• MISSION

In 1186 Guy eventually became king, after the death of Baldwin V. (Sibylla's son by her first marriage); but his See also:

• CORONATION (Lat. corona, crown)

In the kingdom itself nothing was left to the Latins by the end of 1189 except the city of Tyre; and to the north of the kingdom they only held Antioch and Tripoli, with the Hospitallers' fortress at Margat. The fingers of the See also:

• CLOCK

But the Third Crusade, unlike the First, does not spring from the papacy, which was passing through one of its epochs of depression; it springs from the lay power, which, represented by the three strong monarchies of Germany, England and France, was at this time dominant in Europe. In Germany it was the See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

Frederick I. of Germany, using a See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

Richard soon followed; but while Philip sailed straight for Acre, Richard occupied himself by the way in conquering Cyprus—partly out of knight-errantry, and in order to avenge an insult offered to his betrothed wife Berengaria by the See also:

• DESPOT (Gr. Sc-va6rgs, lord or master; the origin of the first part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with rbvcs, husband, Lat. potens, powerful)

In this condition Richard left the Holy Land, when he began his eventful return, in October 1192. The Crusade had failed—failed because a leaderless army, torn by political dissensions and fighting on a foreign soil, could not succeed against forces united by religious zeal under the banner of a leader like Saladin. Yet it had at any rate saved for the Christians the principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli, and some of the coast towns of the kingdom; 2 and if it had failed to accomplish its object, it had left behind, none the less, many important results. The difficulties which had arisen between Isaac Angelus and Frederick See also:

• BARBAROSSA ("Redbeard")

In the first place, Cyprus was a natural and excellent basis of operations; it sent provisions to the crusaders in 1191, and again at the siege of See also:

• DAMIETTA

The Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204.—The history of the Fourth Crusade is a history of the predominance of the lay motive, of the attempt of the papacy to escape from that predominance, and to establish its old direction of the Crusade, and of the complete failure of its attempt. Until the accession of Innocent III. in 1198 the lay motive was supreme; and its representative was Henry VI.—the greatest politician of his day, and in many ways the greatest emperor since Charlemagne. In 1195 Amalric, the brother of Guy de Lusignan, and his successor in Cyprus, sought the title of king from Henry and did homage; and at the same time Leo of Lesser Armenia, in order to escape from dependence on the Eastern empire, took the same course. Henry thus gained a basis in the Levant; while the death of Saladin in 1193, followed by a civil war between his brother, Malik-al-Adil, and his sons for the possession of his dominions, weakened the position of the Mahommedans. As emperor, Henry was eager to resume the imperial Crusade which had been stopped by his father's death; while both as Frederick's successor and as heir to the Norman kings of Sicily, who had again and again waged war against the Eastern empire, he had an account to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

Throughout the course of his crowded and magnificent pontificate, Innocent III. made the Crusade his ultimate object, and attempted to bring it back to its old religious basis and under its old papal direction. By the spring of 1200, owing to Innocent's exertions, a new Crusade was in full progress, especially in France, where Fulk of Neuilly played the part once played by Peter the Hermit. Like the First Crusade, the Fourth Crusade also—in its personnel, but not its direction—was a French enterprise; and its leading members were French feudatories like See also:

• THEOBALD, (d. 1161)
• THEOBALD, LEWIS (1688-1744)

But the Fourth Crusade was not to be plain sailing to Egypt. It became involved in a See also:

• MAELSTROM (whirlpool)

On the one hand, the death of the count of Champagne (May 1201) had induced the crusaders to elect as their leader See also:

• BONIFACE (Bonifacius)
• BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754)

But when the time came for Alexius to fulfil his promises, the difficulty which had arisen at Venice in the autumn of 1202 repeated itself. Alexius's resources were insufficient, and he had to beg the crusaders to wait at Constantinople for a year in order that he might have time. They waited; but the closer contact of a prolonged stay only brought into See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

M. Luchaire, La Question a' Orient, pp. 84-86). 2 It is true that in r208 Venice received commercial concessions from the court of Cairo. But this ex See also:

• POST

But before St Louis sailed for Damietta there intervened the miserable failure of one Crusade, and the secular and diplomatic success of another. The Fifth Crusade is the last which is started in that pontificate of Crusades—the pontificate of Innocent III. It owed its origin to his feverish zeal for the recovery of Jerusalem, rather than to any pressing need in the Holy Land. Here there reigned, during the forty years of the loss of Jerusalem, an almost unbroken peace. Malik-al-Adil, the brother of Saladin, had by 1200 succeeded to his brother's possessions not only in Egypt but also in Syria, and he granted the Christians a series of truces (1198-1203, 1204-1210, 1211-1217). While the Holy Land was thus at peace, crusaders were also being drawn elsewhere by the needs of the Latin empire of Constantinople, or the attractions of the Albigensian Crusade.2 But Innocent could never consent to forget Jerusalem, as long as his right hand retained its cunning. The pathos of the Children's Crusade of 1212 only nerved him to. fresh efforts. A shepherd boy named Stephen had appeared in France, and had induced thousands to follow his guidance: with his boyish army he rode on a See also:

• WAGON, or WAGGON

Thus was begun the First Crusade against See also:

• HERESY

The capture of Damietta was a considerable feat of arms, but nothing was done to clinch the advantage which had been won, and the whole of the year 1220 was spent by the crusaders in Damietta, partly in consolidating their immediate position, and partly in waiting for the arrival of Frederick II., who had promised to appear in 1221. In 1221 See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

" He had promised the pope, at his coronation in 122o, to begin his Crusade in August 1221. But he declared himself exhausted by the expenses of his coronation; and See also:

• HONORIUS
• HONORIUS, FLAVIUS (384-423)

After the failure of the Fifth Crusade—for which these delays were in part responsible—Honorius III. had attempted to bind him more intimately to the Holy Land by arranging a marriage with Isabella, the daughter of John of Brienne, and the heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1225 Frederick married Isabella, and immediately after the marriage he assumed the title of king in right of his wife, and exacted homage from the vassals of the kingdom .2 It was thus as king of Jerusalem that Frederick began his Crusade in the autumn of 1227. Scarcely, however, had he sailed from See also:

• BRINDISI (anc. Brundisium, q.v.)

That, at any rate, was the view Frederick II. took.to enter his capital: as one under excommunication, he had to see an See also:

• INTERDICT (Lat. interdictum, from interdicere, to forbid by decree, lit., interpose by speech)

Already in Cyprus, in the summer of 1228, Frederick II. had insisted on the right of wardship which he enjoyed as overlord of the island,3 and he had appointed a See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

The Amalric I. of Cyprus had done homage to Henry VI., from whom he had received the title of king (I195). treaty of Frederick with Malik-al-Kamil (d. 1238) had now expired, and new succours and new See also:

• MEASURES

While the papacy thus See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

543 retreat became a rout. St Louis was captured, and a treaty was made by which he had to consent to evacuate Damietta and pay a ransom of 800,000 pieces of gold. Eventually St Louis was released on surrendering Damietta and paying one-half of his ransom, and by the middle of May 1250 he reached Acre, having abandoned the Egyptian expedition. For the next four years he stayed in the Holy Land, seeking to do what he could for the establishing of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He was able to do but little. The struggle of papacy and empire paralysed Europe, and even in France itself there were few ready to answer the calls for help which St Louis sent home from Acre. The one answer was the Shepherds' Crusade, or Crusade of the Pastoureaux—" a religious See also:

• JACQUERIE, THE

The Ayyubites had always been, on the whole, chivalrous and tolerant: Saladin and his successors, Malik-al-Adil and Malik-al-Kamil, had none of them shown an implacable enmity to the Christians. The Mamelukes, who are analogous to the See also:

• JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish yeni cheri, new troops)

From him Damascus passed to Malik-al-Salih Ayyub of Egypt at the battle of Gaza. 544 measure for the success of the Sixth Crusade; and it has been seen that the battle of Gaza was an act in the long See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

Again in 1252 St Louis (who had already begun to negotiate with the Mongols in the winter of 1248–1249) sent the friar William of See also:

• RUBRUQUIS (or RUBROUCK), WILLIAM OF

In r265 fell Caesarea and Arsuf; in 1268 Antioch was taken, and the principality of Bohemund and Tancred ceased to exist.2 In the years which followed on the loss of Antioch several attempts were made in the West to meet the progress of the new conqueror. In 1269 James the Conqueror of See also:

• ARAGON, or ARRAGON (in Span. Aragon)

Charles, as anxious to attack Constantinople as he was reluctant to attack Tunis, with which Sicily had long had commercial relations; was forced to abandon his own plans and to join in those of his brother. St Louis had barely landed in Tunis when he sickened and died, murmuring " Jerusalem, Jerusalem " (August 1270); but Charles, who appeared immediately after his brother's death, was able to conduct the Crusade to a successful conclusion. Negotiating in the spirit of a Frederick II., and acting not as a Crusader but as a king of Sicily, he not only wrested a large indemnity from the bey for himself and the new king of France, but also secured a large annual' tribute for his Sicilian See also:

• EXCHEQUER

All the princes of western Europe took the cross; not only so, but Gregory was successful in uniting the Eastern and Western churches for the moment, and in securing for the new Crusade the aid of the Palaeologi, now thoroughly alarmed by the plans of Charles of Anjou. Thus was a papal Crusade begun, backed by an alliance with Constantinople, and thus were the plans of Charles of Anjou temporarily thwarted. But in 1276 Gregory X. died, and all his plans died with him; there was to be no union of the monarchs of the West with the emperor of the East in a common Crusade. Charles was able to resume his plans. In 1277 Mary of Antioch ceded to him her claims, and he was able to establish himself in Acre; in 1278 he took possession of the principality of See also:

• ACHAEA

9. The See also:

• GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages; O.E. vest, Dutch, 'geest, Ger. Geist)

But one might enumerate ad infinitum the causes of the failure of the Crusades. It is simplest, as it is truest, to say that the Crusades did not fail —they simply ceased; and they ceased because they were no longer in joint with the times. The moral character of Europe in 1300 was no longer the moral character of Europe in 1100; and the Crusades, which had been the active and objective embodiment of the other worldly Europe of 1100, were See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

The union of the two orders, already suggested at the council of Lyons in 1245, was nominally achieved by the council of See also:

• VIENNE
• VIENNE, COUNCIL OF

In 1344 a Crusade, in which Venice, the Cypriots, and the Hospitallers all joined, ended in the conquest of See also:

• SMYRNA (Ismir)

Henry V., whose father had fought with the Teutonic knights on the Baltic, dreamed of a voyage to Jerusalem. 2 The union of 1274, conceded by the Palaeologi at the council of Lyons in order to defeat the plans of Charles of Anjou, had only been temporaryforces of See also:

• WLADISLAUS (WLADISLAW)

In the 13th century the whole of Europe was Christian; part of Asia Minor still belonged to Greek Christianity, and there was a Christian kingdom in Palestine. Nor was this all. A wide missionary activity had begun in the 13th century—an activity which was the product of the Crusades and the contact with the Moslem which they brought, but which yet helped to check the Crusades, substituting as it did peaceful and spiritual conquests of souls for the violence and See also:

• MATERIALISM (from Lat. materia, matter)

A Crusade won for Christianity the coast of the eastern Baltic (see TEUroxlc ORDER) ; and the centuries of the Spanish Crusade ended in the conquest of the whole of Spain for Christianity. documentary evidence for every assertion may be rather inclined to attribute to that influence little or nothing.' The See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

When one remembers that missionaries like Piano Carpini, and traders like the Venetian Polos, either penetrated by land from Acre to Peking, or circumnavigated southern Asia from See also:

• BASRA (written also BUSRA, BASSORA and BASSORA)

As early as 1147 Louis VII. had imposed a tax in the interests of the Crusades; and that tax had been repeated by Louis, and imitated by Henry II. in 1166, while it had been still further extended in the Saladin tithe of 1188. The taxation of 1166 is important as the first to fall on " moveables "; the whole scheme of taxation may be regarded as the beginning of a modern system of taxation. But it was not only to the lay power that the Crusades gave an excuse for taxation; the papacy also profited. Tithes for the Crusades were first imposed on the clergy by Innocent III. at the Lateran council of 1 215 ; and clerical taxation was thus part of the whole statesmanlike project of the Fifth Crusade as it was sketched by the great pope. Henceforth tithes for the Crusades are regular; under Gregory IX. they become a great part of the papal resources in the Crusade against the Hohenstaufen; and in the 16th century they are still a normal part of the government of the Church. In many other ways the Europe over which the Crusades had passed was different from the Europe of the 1th century. In the first place, many political changes had been wrought, largely under its influence. Always in large part French, the Crusades had on the whole contributed to exalt the prestige of France, until it stood at the end of the 13th century the most considerable power in Europe. It was France which had colonized the Levant; it was the French tongue which was used in the Levant; and the results of the ancient and continuous connexion with the East are still to be traced to-day. Of the other great powers of Europe, England and Germany had been little changed by the Crusades, save that Germany had been extended towards the East by the conquests of the Teutonic Order; but the Eastern empire had been profoundly modified, and the papacy had suffered a great change. The Eastern empire had been for a time annihilated by the movement which in 1095 it had helped to evoke; and if it rose from its ashes in 1261 for two centuries of renewed life, it was never more than the shadow of its old self, with little hold on Asia Minor and less on Greece and the Archipelago, which the Latins still continued to occupy until they were finally conquered by the Ottoman Turks. The papacy, on the other hand, had grown as a result of the Crusades.

Popes had preached them; popes had financed them; popes had sent their legates to lead them. Through them the popes had deposed the emperors of the West from their headship of the world, partly because through the Crusades the popes were able to direct the common Christianity of Europe in a foreign policy of their own without consultation with the emperor, partly because in the 13th century they were ultimately able to direct the Crusade itself against the empire. Yet while they had magnified, the Crusades had also corrupted the papacy. They became an instrument in its hands which it used to its own undoing. It cried Crusade when there was no Crusade; and the long Crusade against the Hohenstaufen, if it gave the papacy an apparent victory, only served in the long run to See also:

• LOWER

They had torn men loose from the ancestral custom of home to walk in new ways and see new things and hear new thoughts; and some broadening of view, some lessening in the intensity of the old one-sidedness, was the inevitable result. It is not so much that the West came into contact with a particular civilization in the East, or borrowed from that civilization; it is simply that the West came into contact with something unlike itself, yet in many ways as high as, if not higher than, itself. The spirit of Nathan der Weise may not have been exactly the spirit engendered by the Crusades; and yet it is not without reason that See also:

• LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729–1781)

By the side of these greater things it may seem little, and yet, just because it is little, it is all the more significant that the Crusades should have familiarized Europe with new See also:

• PLANTS

Godfrey, advocatus 1099-I100. Baldwin III., king 1143—1162. 1 Baldwin IV., SibyllaI = (I) William of Montferrat; (2) Guy de Lusignan, king 1174-1183. I king 1186-1192. Baldwin V., king 1183-1186. Amalric I., king 1162-1174.. in 1192.