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DUBOIS

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Originally appearing in Volume V08, Page 626 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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DUBOIS , a See also:

borough of See also:Clearfield See also:county, See also:Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 129 M. by See also:rail N.E. of See also:Pittsburg. Pop. (189o) 6149, (1900) 9375, of whom 1655 were See also:foreign-See also:born; (1910 See also:census) 12,623. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the See also:Buffalo, See also:Rochester & Pittsburg, and the Buffalo & Susquehanna See also:railways. The borough is built on a small See also:plateau surrounded by hills, on the See also:west slope of the See also:Alleghany Mountains, nearly 1400 ft. above See also:sea-level. Its See also:chief importance is as a See also:coal and See also:lumber centre; among its manufacturing establishments are blast furnaces, See also:iron See also:works, See also:machine shops, railway repair shops, tanneries, planing See also:mills, See also:flour mills, See also:locomotive works and a See also:glass factory. Dubois was first settled in 1872, was named in See also:honour of its founder, See also:John Dubois, and was incorporated in 1881. Printed in Collections a servira l'etude de l'histoire (1891). DUBOIS-CRANCE, EDMOND See also:LOUIS See also:ALEXIS (1747-1814), See also:French Revolutionist, born at See also:Charleville,was at first a musketeer, then a See also:lieutenant of the marechaux,or guardsmen of the old regime, He embraced liberal ideas, and in 1789 was elected See also:deputy to the states-See also:general by the third See also:estate of Vitry-le-See also:Francois. At the Constituent See also:Assembly, of which he was named secretary in See also:November 1789, he busied himself mainly with military reforms. He wished to see the old military See also:system, with its See also:caste distinctions and its mercenaries, replaced by an organization of See also:national See also:guards in which all citizens should be admitted. In his See also:report, on the 12th of See also:December 1789, he gave utterance for the first See also:time to the See also:idea of See also:conscription, which he opposed to the recruiting system of the old regime.

His report was not, however, adopted. He succeeded in securing the Assembly's See also:

vote that any slave who touched French See also:soil should become See also:free. After the Constituent, Dubois-Crance was named marechal de See also:camp, but he refused to be placed under the orders of See also:Lafayette and preferred to serve as a See also:simple See also:grenadier. Elected to the See also:Convention by the See also:department of the See also:Ardennes, he sat among the Montagnards, but without following any one See also:leader, either See also:Danton or See also:Robespierre. In the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for See also:death without delay or See also:appeal. On the 21st of See also:February 1793 he was named See also:president of the Convention. Although he was a member of the two committees of general See also:defence which preceded that of public safety, he did not belong to the latter at its creation. But he composed a remarkable report on the See also:army, recommending two See also:measures which contributed largely to its success, the rapid See also:advancement of the See also:lower See also:officers, which opened the way for the most famous generals of the Revolution, and the See also:fusion of the See also:volunteers with the See also:veteran troops. In See also:August 1793 Dubois-Crance was designated " representative on See also:mission " to the army of the See also:Alps, to See also:direct the See also:siege of See also:Lyons, which had revolted against the See also:republic. Accused of lack of See also:energy, he was replaced by G. See also:Couthon. On his return he easily justified himself, but was excluded from the Jacobin See also:club at the instance of Robespierre, before whom he refused to See also:bend.

Consequently he was naturally See also:

drawn to participate in the revolution of the 9th of See also:Thermidor of the See also:year II., directed against Robespierre. But he would not join the Royalist reaction which followed, and was one of the See also:committee of five which had to oppose the Royalist insurrection of Vendemiaire (see FRENCH REVOLUTION. It was also during this See also:period that Dubois-Crance was named a member of the committee of public safety, then much reduced in importance. After the Convention, under the See also:Directory, Dubois-Crance was a member of the See also:Council of the Five See also:Hundred, and was appointed inspector-general of See also:infantry; then, in 1799, See also:minister of See also:war. Opposed to the coup d'etat of the 18th of See also:Brumaire, he lived in retirement during the Consulate and the See also:Empire. He died at See also:Rethel on the 29th of See also:June 1814. His portrait stands in the foreground in J. L. See also:David's celebrated See also:sketch of the " See also:Oath of the See also:Tennis See also:Court." Among the numerous writings of Dubois-Crance may be noticed his Observations sur la constitution militaire, ou bases du travail propose au comite militaire. See H. F. T.

See also:

Jung, Dubois de Cranci. L'armee et la Revolution, 1789-1794 (2 vols., See also:Paris, 1884). DU BOIS-REYMOND, EMIL (1818-1896), See also:German physiologist, was born in See also:Berlin on the 7th of November 1818. The Prussian See also:capital was the See also:place both of his See also:birth and of his See also:life's See also:work, and he will always be counted among See also:Germany's See also:great scientific men; yet he was not of German See also:blood. His See also:father belonged to See also:Neuchatel, his See also:mother was of Huguenot descent, and he spoke of himself as " being of pure See also:Celtic blood." Educated first at the French See also:college in Berlin, then at Neuchatel, whither his father had returned, he entered in 1836 the university of Berlin. He seems to have been uncertain at first as to the See also:bent of his studies, for he sat at the feet of the great ecclesiastical historian August See also:Neander, and dallied with See also:geology; but eventually he threw himself into the study of See also:medicine, with such zeal and success as to attract the See also:notice of the great teacher of See also:anatomy and See also:physiology, who was then making Berlin famous as a school for the sciences See also:ancillary to medicine. Johannes See also:Muller may be regarded as the central figure in the See also:history of See also:modern physiology the physiology of the x9th See also:century. See also:Miller's earlier studies had been distinctly physiological; but his inclination, no less than his position as See also:professor of anatomy as well as of physiology in the university of Berlin, led him later on into wide studies of See also:comparative anatomy, and these, aided by the natural bent of his mind towards problems of general See also:philosophy, gave his views of physiology a breadth and a See also:depth which profoundly influenced the progress of that See also:science in his See also:day. He had, about the time when the See also:young Du Bois-Reymond came to his lectures, published his great Elements of Physiology, the dominant See also:note of which may be said to be this:—" Though there appears to be something in the phenomena of living beings which cannot be explained by See also:ordinary See also:mechanical, See also:physical or chemical See also:laws, much may be so explained, and we may without fear push these explanations as far as we can, so See also:long as we keep to the solid ground of observation and experiment." Miller recognized in the Neuchatel lad a mind fitted to carry on physical researches into the phenomena of living things in a legitimate way. He made him in 1840 his assistant in physiology, and as a starting-point for an inquiry put into his hands the See also:essay which the See also:Italian, Carlo See also:Matteucci, had just published on the electric phenomena of animals. This determined the work of Du Bois-Reymond's life. He See also:chose as the subject of his See also:graduation thesis " Electric Fishes," and so commenced a long See also:series of investigations on See also:animal See also:electricity, by which he enriched science and made for himself a name.

The results of these inquiries were made known partly in papers communicated to scientific See also:

journals, but also and chiefly in his work Researches on Animal Electricity, the first See also:part of which appeared in 1848, the last in 1884. This great work may be regarded under two aspects. On the one See also:hand, it is a See also:record of the exact determination and approximative See also:analysis of the electric phenomena presented by living beings. Viewed from this standpoint, it represents a remarkable advance of our knowledge. Du Bois-Reymond, beginning with the imperfect observations of Matteucci, built up, it may be said, this See also:branch of science. He did so by inventing or improving methods, by devising new See also:instruments of observation or by adapting old ones. The See also:debt which science owes to, him on this See also:score is a large one indeed. On the other hand, the volumes in question contain an exposition of a theory. In them Du Bois-Reymond put forward,a general conception by the help of which he strove to explain the phenomena which he had observed. He See also:developed the view that a living See also:tissue, such as muscle, might be regarded as composed of a number of electric molecules, of molecules having certain electric properties, and that the electric behaviour of the muscle as a whole in varying circumstances was the outcome of the behaviour of these native electric molecules. It may perhaps be said that this theory has not stood the test of time so well as have Du Bois-Reymond's other more simple deductions from observed facts. It was See also:early attacked by Ludimar See also:Hermann, who maintained that a living untouched tissue, such as a muscle, is not the subject of electric currents so long as it is at See also:rest, is isoelectric in substance, and therefore need not be supposed to be made up of electric molecules, all the electric phenomena which it manifests being due to See also:internal molecular changes associated with activity or injury.

Although most subsequent observers have ranged themselves on Hermann's See also:

side, it must nevertheless be admitted that Du Bois-Reymond's theory was of great value if only as a working See also:hypothesis, and that as such it greatly helped in the advance of science. Du Bois-Reymond's work See also:lay chiefly in the direction of animal electricity, yet he carried his inquiries—such as could be studied by physical methods—into other parts of physiology, more especially into the phenomena of See also:diffusion, though he published little or nothing concerning the results at which he arrived. For many years, too, he exerted a great See also:influence as a teacher. In 1858, upon the death of Johannes Muller, the See also:chair of anatomy and physiology, which that great See also:man had held, was divided into a chair of human and comparative anatomy, which was given to K. B. Reichert (181.1-1883), and a chair of physiology, which naturally See also:fell to Du Bois-Reymond. This he, held to his death, carrying out his researches for many years under unfavourableconditions of inadequate See also:accommodation. In 1877,through his influence, the See also:government provided the university with a proper physiological laboratory. In 1851 he was admitted into the See also:Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and in 1867 became its perpetual secretary. For many years he and his friend H. von See also:Helmholtz, who like him had been a See also:pupil of Johannes Muller, were prominent men in the German capital. Acceptable at court, they both used their position and their influence for the advancement of science. Both, from time to time as opportunity offered, stepped out of the narrow limits of the professorial chair and gave the See also:world their thoughts concerning things on which they could not well dwell in the lecture See also:room.

Du Bois-Reymond, as has been said, had in his earlier years wandered into See also:

fields other than those of physiology and medicine, and in his later years he went back to some of these. His occasional discourses, dealing with general topics and various problems of philosophy, show that to the end he possessed the historic spirit which had led him as a lad to listen to Neander; they are marked not only by a See also:charm of See also:style, but by a breadth of view such as might be expected from Johannes See also:Mullet's pupil and friend. He died in the See also:city of his birth and See also:adoption on the 26th of November 1896. (M.

End of Article: DUBOIS

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