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ROBESPIERRE, MAXIMILIEN FRANCOIS MARI...
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See also:ROBESPIERRE, MAXIMILIEN See also:FRANCOIS See also:MARIE ISIDORE DE (175$-1794) , See also:French revolutionist, was See also:born at See also:Arras on the 6th of May 1758. His See also:family, according to tradition, was of Irish descent, having emigrated from See also:Ireland at the See also:time of the See also:Reformation on See also:account of See also:religion, and his See also:direct ancestors in the male See also:line had been notaries at the little See also:village of Carvin near Arras from the beginning of the 17th See also:century. His See also:grand-See also:father, being more ambitious, established himself at Arras as an See also:advocate; and his father followed the same profession, marrying Jacqueline See also:Marguerite Carraut, daughter of a See also:brewer in the same See also:city, in 1757. Of this See also:marriage four See also:children were born, two sons and two daughters, of whom Maximilien was the eldest; but in 1767 Madame Derobespierre, as the name was then spelt, died, and the disconsolate widower at once See also:left Arras and wandered about See also:Europe until his See also:death at See also:Munich in 1769. The children were taken See also:charge of by their maternal grandfather and aunts, and Maximilien was sent to the See also:college of Arras, whence he was nominated in 1770 through the See also:bishop of his native See also:town to a bursarship at the college of See also: In 1784 he obtained a See also:medal from the academy of See also:Metz for his See also:essay on the question whether the relatives of a condemned criminal should` See also:share his disgrace, the See also:prize being divided between him and See also:Pierre Louis See also:Lacretelle, an advocate and, journalist in Paris. An eloge on J. B. L. See also:Gresset (1709-1777), the ' author of Vert-Vert and Le Meehan', written for the academy of See also:Amiens in 1785, was not more successful; but Robespierre was compensated for these failures by his See also:great popularity in the little literary. and musical society at Arras known as the " Rosati," of which Carnet was also a member. There the sympathetic quality of Robespierre's See also:voice, which afterwards did him such See also:good service in the Jacobin See also:Club, always caused his indifferent verses to be loudly applauded by his See also:friends. In 1788 he took See also:part in the discussion as to the way in which the states-See also:general should be elected, showing clearly and forcibly in his Adresse a la nation artesienne that, if the former mode of See also:election by the members of the provincial estates were again adopted, the new states-general would not represent the See also:people of See also:France. See also:Necker also perceived this, and therefore deter-See also:mined. to make the old royal bailliages and senechaussees the See also:units of election, which thus took See also:place on the basis of almost universal See also:suffrage. Under this See also:plan the city of Arras was to return twenty-four members to the See also:assembly of the bailliage of See also:Artois, which was to elect the deputies. ' The See also:corporation claimed the right to a preponderating See also:influence in these city elections, and Robespierre headed the opposition, making himself very conspicuous and See also:drawing up the cahier, or table of complaints and grievances, for the gild of the cobblers. Although the leading members of the corporation were elected, their See also:chief opponent succeeded in getting elected with them. In the assembly. of the bailliage rivalry ran still higher, but Robespierre had already made his See also:mark in politics; by the Avis aux habitants de Campagne (Arras, 1789), which is almost certainly by him, he secured the support of the See also:country See also:electors, and, though but See also:thirty years of See also:age, poor and without influence, he was elected fifth See also:deputy of the tiers, etat of Artois to the states-general. When the states-general met at See also:Versailles on 5th May 1789, the young deputy of Artois already possessed the one See also:faculty which was to See also:lead him to supremacy: he was a fanatic. As See also:Mirabeau is reported to have said: "That young See also:man believes what he says: he will go far." Without the courage and wide tolerance which make a statesman, without the greatest qualities of an orator, without the belief in himself which marks a great man, See also:nervous, timid and suspicious, Robespierre yet believed in the doctrines of See also: At last came his See also:day of See also:triumph, when on the 3oth of See also:September, on the See also:dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, the people of Paris crowned Petion and himself as the two incorruptible patriots. On the dissolution of the Assembly he returned for a short visit to Arras, where he met with a triumphant reception. In See also:November he returned to Paris, and on the 18th of December made a speech which marks a new See also:epoch in his See also:life. See also:Brissot de Warville, the dme politique of the Girondin party which had been formed in the Legislative Assembly, urged vehemently that See also:war should be declared against See also:Austria, and the See also:queen was equally urgent, in the See also:hope that a victorious See also:army might restore the old See also:absolutism of the Bourbons. Two men opposed the projects of the queen and the Girondins—See also:Marat and Robespierre. Robespierre feared a development of militarism, which might be turned to the See also:advantage of the reaction. This opposition from those whom they had expected to aid them irritated the Girondins greatly, and from that moment began the struggle which ended in the coups d'etat of the 31st of May and the 2nd of June 1793. Robespierre persisted in his opposition to the war; the Girondins, especially. Brissot, attacked him violently; and in See also:April 1792, he resigned the See also:post of public prosecutor at the tribunal of Paris, which he had held since See also:February, and started a See also:journal, Le Defenseur de la Constitution, in his own See also:defence. It is noteworthy that during the summer months of 1992 in which the See also:fate of the See also:Bourbon See also:dynasty was being sealed, neither the Girondins in, the Legislative Assembly nor Robespierre took any active part in overthrowing it. Stronger men with See also:practical instincts of statesmanship, like See also:Danton and Billaud Varenne, who dared to look facts in the See also:face and take the responsibility of doing while others were talking! were the men who made the loth of See also:August and took the Tuileries. The Girondins, however, were quite ready to take advantage of the accomplished fact; and Robespierre, likewise, though shocked at the shedding of See also:blood, was willing to take his seat on the See also:Commune of Paris, which had overthrown Louis XVI., and might check the Girondins. The strong men of the Commune were glad to have Robespierre's assistance, not because they cared for him or believed in him, but because of the help got from his popularity, his reputation for virtue, which had won for him the surname of " The Incorruptible," and his influence over the Jacobin Club and its branches, which spread all over France. He it was who presented the See also:petition of the Commune of Paris on 16th August to the Legislative Assembly, demanding the See also:establishment of a revolutionary tribunal and the summoning of a See also:Convention. The massacres xXrII. I4417 of September in the prisons, which Robespierre in vain at-tempted to stop, showed that the Commune had more confidence in Billaud than in him. Yet, as a See also:proof of his See also:personal popularity, he was a few days later elected first deputy for Paris to the See also:National Convention. On the See also:meeting of the Convention the Girondins immediately attacked Robespierre; they were jealous of his influence in Paris, and knew that his single-hearted fanaticism would never forgive their intrigues with the king at the end of July. As See also:early as the 26th of September the Girondin M. D. A. Lasource accused him of aiming at the dictatorship; afterwards he was informed that Marat, Danton and himself were plotting to be-come triumvirs; and eventually on the .27th of See also:October Louvet de Couvrai attacked him in a studied and declamatory harangue, abounding in ridiculous falsehoods and obviously concocted in Madame See also:Roland's boudoir. But Robespierre had no difficulty in rebutting this attack (5th of November), while he denounced the federalist plans of the Girondins. All personal disputes, however, gave way by the See also:month of December 1792 before the great question of the king's trial, and here Robespierre took up a position which is at least easily understood. These are his words spoken on the 3rd, of December: This is no trial; Louis is not a prisoner at the bar; you are not See also:judges; you are—you cannot but be—statesmen, and the representatives of the nation. You have not to pass sentence for or against a single man, but you have to take a See also:resolution on a question of the public safety, and to decide a question of national foresight. It is with regret that I pronounce. the fatal truth: Louis ought to perish rather than a See also:hundred thousand virtuous citizens; Louis must See also:die, that the country may live." This great question settled by the king's See also:execution, the struggle between Robespierre and the Girondins entered upon a more acute See also:stage, and the want of statesmanship among the latter threw upon the See also:side of the fanatical Robespierre Danton and all those strong practical men who cared little for personal questions, and whose only See also:desire was the victory of France in her great struggle with Europe. Had it been at all possible to See also:act with that See also:group of men of See also:genius whom See also:history calls the Girondins, Danton, Lazare See also:Carnot, See also:Robert See also:Lindet, and even Billaud-Varenne, would have sooner thrown in their See also:lot with them than with Robespierre, whom they thoroughly understood; but the Girondins, spurred on by Madame Roland, refused to have anything to do with Danton.. See also:Government became impossible; the federalist See also:idea, which would have broken France to pieces. in the very face of the enemy, See also:grew and flourished, and the men of See also:action had to take a decided part. In the month of May 1793 Camille Desmoulins, acting under . the See also:inspiration of Robespierre and Danton, published his Histoire See also:des Brissotins and Brissot demasque; Maximin See also:Isnard declared that Paris must be destroyed if it pronounced itself against the provincial deputies; Robespierre preached insurrection at the Jacobin Club; and on the 31st of May and the 2nd of June the Commune of Paris destroyed the Girondin party. For a moment it seemed as if France would avenge them; but patriotism was stronger than federalism. The defence of See also:Lyons exasperated the men who were working for France, and the armies who were fighting for her, and on the 27th of July 1793, when the struggle was practically decided, the Convention elected Robespierre to the new See also:Committee of Public Safety. He had not solicited, so it seems, nor even desired this election, yet it marks an important epoch, not only in the life of Robespierre, but, in the history of the Revolution. Danton and the men of action had throughout the last two years of the crisis, as Mirabeau had in the first two years, seen that the one great need of France, if she was to see the end of her troubles without the interference of See also:foreign armies, was the existence of a strong executive government. The means for establishing the much-needed strong executive were found in the Committee of Public Safety. The success of this Committee in suppressing the See also:Norman insurrection had confirmed the See also:majority of the Convention in the expediency of strengthening its See also:powers, and the Committee of General 418 See also:Security which sat beside it was also strengthened and given the entire management of the See also:internal See also:police of the country. It was not until Robespierre was elected to the Committee that he became one of the actual rulers of France. Indeed, the Committee was not finally constituted until the 13th of September, when the last two of the " great " twelve who held See also:office until July 1794 were elected. Of these twelve at least seven —Lazare See also:Carrot, Billaud-Varenne, See also:Collot d'Herbois, See also:Prieur Duvernois (of the See also:Marne), Prieur (of the Cote d'Or), See also:Jean Bon See also:Saint-See also:Andre and Robert Lindet—were essentially men of action, and were entirely See also:free from the influence of Robespierre. Of the other four, $erault de Sechelles was a professed adherent of Danton, Bathe de Vieuzac was an eloquent Provencal, who was ready to be the spokesman to the Convention of any view which the majority of the Committee might adopt; and only Georges See also:Couthon and Saint-Just, devoted to Robespierre, adroitly sustained his policy. It is necessary to dwell upon the fact that Robespierre was always in a minority in the great Committee in order to absolve him from the blame of being the inventor of the Terror, as well as to deprive him of the See also:glory of the gallant stand made against Europe in arms. After this examination of Robespierre's position it is not necessary to investigate closely every act of the great Committee during the See also:year which was pre-eminently the year of the Terror; the biographer is rather called upon to examine his personal position with regard to the establishment of the Terror and the fall of the Hebertists and Dantonists, and then to dwell upon the last three months in which he stood almost alone trying to work up an effective counterbalance to the See also:power of the majority of the great Committee. The Terror was the embodiment of the idea of Danton, that it was necessary to have resort to extreme See also:measures to keep France See also:united and strong at See also:home in order to meet successfully her enemies upon the frontier. This idea was systematized by the Committee of Public Safety. With the actual organization of the Terror Robespierre had little or nothing to do; its two great engines, the revolutionary tribunal and the almost See also:absolute power in the provinces of the representatives on See also:mission, were in existence before he joined the Committee of Public Safety, and the See also:laws of the maximum and of the suspects were by no means of his creation. The See also:reason why he is almost universally regarded as its creator and the dominant spirit in the Committee is not hard to discover. Men like Lazare Carnot and Billaud-Varenne were not conspicuous speakers in the Convention, nor were they the idols of any See also:section of the populace; but Robespierre had a fanatical following among the Jacobins and was one of the most popular orators in the Convention, on which his care-fully prepared addresses often made a deep impression. His panegyrics on the See also:system of revolutionary government and his praise of virtue led his hearers to believe that the system of the Terror, instead of being monstrous, was absolutely laudable; his pure life and admitted incorruptibility threw a lustre on the Committee of which he was a member; and his colleagues offered no opposition to his posing as their representative and reflecting some of his personal popularity upon them so See also:long as he did not interfere with their work. Moreover, he alone never left Paris, whilst all the others, except See also:Bat-ere, were constantly engaged on See also:missions to the armies, the See also:navy and the provinces. It has been asserted that Robespierre, Couthon and Saint-Just took upon themselves the direction of " la haute politique," while the other members acted only in subordinate capacities; undoubtedly it would have suited Robespierre to have had this believed, but as a See also:matter of fact he was in no way especially trusted in matters of supreme importance. After this explanation it may be said at once that Robespierre was not the See also:sole author of the overthrow of the Dantonists and the Hebertists, though he thoroughly agreed with the majority and had no desire to See also:save them, the principles of both parties being See also:obnoxious to him. The Hebertists were communists in the true meaning of the word. They held that each commune should be self-governing, and, while admittingthe right of a central authority to See also:levy men and See also:money for the purposes of the See also:state, they believed that in purely internal matters, as well as in determining the mode in which men and money were to be raised, the See also:local government ought to be supreme. This position of the Hebertists was of course obnoxious to the Committee, who believed that success could only be won by their retention of absolute power; and in the See also:winter of 1794–1995 it became obvious that the Hebertist party must perish, or its opposition to the Committee would grow too formidable owing to its See also:paramount influence in the Commune of Paris. Robespierre shared his colleagues' fear. of the Hebertist opinions, and he had a personal reason for disliking that party of atheists and sansculottes, since he believed in the necessity of religious faith, and detested their See also:imitation of the grossness that belongs to the lowest class of the populace. In 1792 he had indignantly thrown from him the cap of See also:liberty which an ardent admirer had placed upon his See also:head; he had never pandered to the depraved tastes of the See also:mob by using their See also:language; and to the last day of his life he wore See also:knee-breeches and See also:silk stockings and wore his See also:hair powdered. His position towards the Dantonist party was of a different See also:character. After having seen established the strong executive he had laboured for, and having moved the resolutions which finally consolidated the power of the Committee of Public Safety in September 1793, Danton retired to his country house. But to his See also:retreat came the See also:news of the means the Committee used to maintain their supremacy. Danton did not believe that this continuous See also:series of sacrifices under the See also:guillotine was necessary, especially since the danger to the country had passed away with the victories of the revolutionary army; hence he inspired Camille Desmoulins to protest against the Terror in the Vieux Cordelier. Where is this system of terror to end? What is the good of a tyranny comparable only to that of the See also:Roman emperors as described by See also:Tacitus? Such were the questions which Camille Desmoulins asked under Danton's inspiration. This " moderantism," as it was called, was as objectionable to the members of the Committee as the doctrines of the Hebertists. Both parties must be crushed. Before the blows at the leaders of those two parties were struck, Robespierre retired for a month (from 13th February to 13th March 1794) from active business in the Convention and the Committee, apparently to consider his position; but he came to the conclusion that the cessation of the Reign of Terror would mean the loss of that supremacy by which he hoped to establish the ideal of Rousseau; for Danton, he knew, was essentially a practical statesman and laughed at his ideas and especially his politico-religious projects. He must have considered too that the result of his siding with Danton would probably have been fatal to himself. The result of his deliberations was that he abandoned Danton and co-operated in the attacks of the Committee on the two parties. On the 15th of March he reappeared in the Convention; on the 19th See also:Hebert and his friends were arrested; and on the 24th they were guillotined. On the 3oth of March Danton, Camille Desmoulins and their friends were arrested, and on the 5th of April they too were guillotined. It was not until after the execution of Danton that Robespierre began to develop a policy distinct from that of his See also:col-leagues in the Committee, an opposition which ended in his downfall. He began by using his influence over the Jacobin Club to dominate the Commune of Paris through his devoted adherents, two of whom, Fleuriot-Lescot and C. F. de Payan, were elected respectively See also:mayor and procureur of the Commune. He also attempted to usurp the influence of the other members of the Committee over the armies by getting his young adherent, Saint-Just, sent on a mission to the frontier. In Paris Robespierre determined to increase the pressure of the Terror: no one should accuse him of moderantism; through the increased efficiency of the revolutionary tribunal Paris should tremble before him as the chief member of the Committee; and the Convention should pass whatever measures he might dictate. To secure his aims, Couthon, his other ally in the Committee, proposed and carried on the loth of June the outrageous law of 22nd Prairial, by which even the See also:appearance of See also:justice was taken from the tribunal, which, as no witnesses were allowed, became a See also:simple See also:court of condemnation. The result of this law was that between the 12th of June and the 28th of July, the day of Robespierre's death, no less than 1285 victims perished by the guillotine in Paris. It was the bloodiest and the least justifiable See also:period of the Terror. But before this there had taken place in Robespierre's life an See also:episode of supreme importance, as illustrating his character and his See also:political aims: on the 7th of May he secured a See also:decree from the Convention recognizing the existence of the Supreme Being. This See also:worship of the Supreme Being was based upon the ideas of Rousseau in the Social See also:Contract, and was opposed by Robespierre to Catholicism on the one See also:hand and the Hebertist See also:atheism on the other. In See also:honour of the Supreme Being a great fete was held on the 8th of June; Robespierre, as See also:president of the Convention, walked first and delivered his harangue, and as he looked around him he may well have believed that his position was secured and that he was at last within reach of a supreme power which should enable him to impose his belief on all France, and so ensure its happiness. The majority of the Committee found his popularity—or rather his ascendancy, for as that increased his personal popularity diminished—useful to them, since by increasing the stringency of the Terror he strengthened the position of the Committee, whilst attracting to himself, as occupying the most prominent position in it, any latent feeling of dissatisfaction at such stringency. Of the issue of a struggle between themselves and Robespierre they had little fear: they controlled the Committee of General Security through their See also:alliance with its leaders, Andre Amar and Marc See also:Guillaume See also:Alexis Vadier; they were hopeful of obtaining a majority in the Convention; for they knew that the chief deputies on the left, or " the See also:Mountain," were Dantonists, who burned to avenge Danton's death; while they felt sure also that the See also:mass of the deputies of the centre, or " the See also:Marsh," could be hounded on against Robespierre if they were to accuse him of aiming at the dictatorship and pour on him the obloquy of having increased the Terror when victory on the frontier rendered it less necessary; and they knew finally that his actual adherents, though devoted to him, were few in number. The devotion of these admirers had been further excited by the news that a See also:half-witted girl, named Cecile Renault, had been found wandering near his house, with a See also:knife in her See also:possession, intending to See also:play the part of See also:Charlotte See also:Corday. She was executed on the 17th of June, on the very day that Vadier raised a laugh at Robespierre's expense in the Convention by his See also:report on the See also:conspiracy of See also:Catherine Theot (q.v.), a mad woman, who had asserted that Robespierre was a divinity. Robespierre felt that he must strike his See also:blow now or never. Yet he was not sufficiently audacious to strike at once, as Payan and Jean See also:Baptiste Coffinhal, the ablest of his adherents, would have had him do, but retired from the Convention for some See also:weeks, as he had done before the overthrow of the Hebertists and the Dantonists, to prepare his plan of action. This retirement seemed ominous to the majority of the Committee, and they too prepared for the struggle by communicating with the deputies of the Mountain, who were either friends of Danton or men of proved See also:energy like See also:Barras, Freron and See also:Tallien. These weeks, the last of his life, Robespierre passed very See also:peace-fully, according to his wont all through the Revolution. He continued to live with the Duplays, with whose daughter tleonore he had fallen in love, and used to wander with her and his favourite See also:dog, a great Danish See also:hound, named Bruant, in the Champs Elysees during the long summer evenings. At last, on the 26th of July, Robespierre appeared, for the first time for more than four weeks, in the Convention and delivered a care-fully studied harangue, which lasted for more than four See also:hours, in which he declared that the Terror ought to be ended, that certain deputies who had acted unjustly and exceeded their powers ought to be punished, and that the Committees of Public Safety and General Security ought to be renewed. Great was the excitement in the Convention: all wondered who were the deputies destined to be punished; all were surprised that the Terror should be imputed as a See also:fault to the very Committee of which Robespierre had been a member. The majority of the Committee of Public Safety determined to act promptly. The Convention, moved by Robespierre's eloquence, at first passed his motions; but he was replied to by See also:Joseph See also:Cambon the financier, Billaud-Varenne, Amar and Vadier, and the Convention rescinded their decrees and referred Robespierre's question to their committees. On the following day, the 27th of July, or in the revolutionary See also:calendar the 9th See also:Thermidor, Saint-Just began to speak on behalf of the motions of Robespierre, when violent interruptions showed the See also:temper of the Convention. Jean See also:Lambert, Tallien, Billaud-Varenne and Vadier again attacked Robespierre; cries of " Down with the See also:tyrant!" were raised; and, when Robespierre hesitated in his speech in See also:answer to these attacks, the words " C'est le sang de Danton qui t'etouffe " showed what was uppermost in the minds of the Mountain. Robespierre tried in vain to gain a See also:hearing, the excitement increased and at five in the afternoon Robespierre, Couthon and Saint-Just, with two young deputies, Augustin Robespierre (younger See also:brother of Maximilien) and Philippe Francois Joseph Lebas, the only men in all the Convention who supported them, were ordered to be arrested. Yet all hope for Robespierre was not gone; he was speedily rescued from his See also:prison, with the other deputies, by the troops of the Commune and brought to the HOtel de Ville. There he was surrounded by his faithful adherents, led by Payan and Coffinhal. But the day was past when the Commune could overawe the Convention; for now the men of action were hostile to the Commune, and its chief was not a See also:master of coups d'etat. On the news of the See also:release of Robespierre, the Convention had again met, and declared the members of the Commune and the released deputies outlawed. The national See also:guards under the command of Barras had little difficulty in making their way to the HOtel de Ville; Robespierre was shot in the lower See also:jaw by a young gendarme named Meda while See also:signing an See also:appeal to one of the sections of Paris to take up arms for him, though the See also:wound was afterwards believed to have been inflicted by him-self; and all the released deputies were again arrested. After a See also:night of agony, Robespierre was the next day taken before the tribunal, where his identity as an outlaw was proved, and without further trial he was executed with Couthon and Saint-Just and nineteen others of his adherents on the Place de la Revolution on the loth Thermidor (28th July) 1794. The character of Robespierre, when looked upon simply in the See also:light of his actions and his authenticated speeches, and apart from the innumerable legends which have grown up about it, is not a difficult one to understand. A well-educated and accomplished young lawyer, he might have acquired a good provincial practice and lived a happy provincial life had it not been for the Revolution. Like thousands of other young Frenchmen, he had read the See also:works of Rousseau and taken them as See also:gospel. Just at the very time in life when this illusion had not been destroyed by the realities of life, and without the experience which might have taught the futility of idle dreams and theories, he was elected to the states-general. At Paris he was not understood till he met with his See also:audience of fellow-disciples of Rousseau at the Jacobin Club. His fanaticism won him supporters; his singularly sweet and sympathetic voice gained him hearers; and his upright life attracted the admiration of all. As matters approached nearer and nearer to the terrible crisis, he failed, except in the two instances of the question of war and of the king's trial, to show himself a statesman, for he had not the liberal views and practical instincts which made Mirabeau and Danton great men. His See also:admission to the Committee of Public Safety gave him power, which he hoped to use for the establishment of his favourite theories, and for the same purpose he acquiesced in and even heightened the horrors of the Reign of Terror. It is here that the fatal See also:mistake of allowing a theorist to have power appeared: Billaud-Varenne systematized the Terror because he believed it necessary for the safety of the country; Robespierre intensified it in order to carry out his own ideas and theories. Robespierre's private life was always respectable: he was always emphatically a See also:gentleman and man of culture, and even a little See also:bit of a See also:dandy, scrupulously honest, truthful and charitable. In his habits and manner of life he was simple and laborious; he was not a man gifted with flashes of genius, but one who had to think much before he could come to a decision, and he worked hard all his life. On the family of Robespierre see A. J. Paris in the Mimoires (2nd series, vol. iii.) of the Academy of Arras; the Euvres de Maximilien Robespierre (3 vols., 1840), published by Laponneraye with See also:preface by Armand See also:Carrel, contain some of his speeches and the See also:memoirs of Charlotte Robespierre on her See also:brothers. The See also:standard work on Robespierre's career is Ernest Hamel, Histoire de Robespierre d'apres des papiers de famille, See also:les See also:sources originales et des documents entierement inedits (3 vols., 1865-67). After the appearance of the first See also:volume, the publisher refused to proceed for fear of See also:prosecution until compelled to do so by the author. Another edition with a different See also:title appeared in 1878. See also Ch. d'Hericault, La Revolution de Thermidor (2nd ed., 1878) ; Karl Brunnemann, See also:Maximilian Robespierre (See also:Leipzig, 188o) ; F. A. See also:Aulard, Les Orateurs de l'Assemblie Constituante (1882); M. de See also:Lescure, " Le Roman de Robespierre," in La Societe francaise See also:pendant la Terreur (1882); E. Hamel, La Maison de Robespierre (1895) ; Hilaire Belloc, Robespierre (19o1); and C. F. See also:Warwick, Robespierre and the French Revolution (19o9). Many of the books which have been written about Robespierre are most untrustworthy, and the picture of him given by See also: Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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