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See also:AULARD, See also:FRANCOIS , See also:VICTOR See also:ALPHONSE (1849— ), See also:French historian, was See also:born at Montbron in See also:Charente in 1849. Having obtained the degree of See also:doctor of letters in 1877 with a Latin thesis upon C. Asinius Pollion and a French one upon Giacomo See also:Leopardi (whose See also:works he subsequently translated into French), he made a study of See also:parliamentary See also:oratory during the French Revolution, and published two volumes upon See also:Les Orateurs de la constituante (1882) and upon Les Orateurs de la legislative et de la See also:convention (1885). With these works, which were reprinted in 1905, he entered a fresh See also:- FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
- FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
- FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
- FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
- FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
- FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
- FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
- FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
- FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
- FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
- FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)
field, where he soon became an acknowledged See also:master. Applying to the study of the French Revolution the rules of See also:historical See also:criticism which had produced such See also:rich results in the study of See also:ancient and See also:medieval See also:history, he devoted himself to profound See also:research in the archives, and to the publication of numerous most important contributions to the See also:political, administrative and moral history of that marvellous See also:period. Appointed See also:professor of the history of the French Revolution at the See also:Sorbonne, he formed the minds of students who in their turn have done valuable See also:work. To him we owe the Recueil See also:des actes du comite de salut public (vol. i., 1889; vol. xvi., 1904) ; La Societe des See also:Jacobins; recueil de documents pour l'histoire du See also:club des Jacobins de See also:Paris (6 vols., 1889–1897); and Paris See also:pendant la reaction thermidorienne et sous le directoire, recueil de documents pour l'histoire de l'esprit public d Paris (5 vols., 1898–1902), which was followed by an analogous collection for Paris sous le consulat (2 vols., 1903–1904). For the Societe de 1'Histoire de la Revolution Francaise, which brought out under his supervision an important periodical publication called La Revolution fran4aise, he produced the Registre des deliberations du consulat provisoire (1894), and L'Etat de la See also:France en l'an VIII et en l'an IX, with the reports of the prefects (1897), besides editing various works or See also:memoirs written by men of the Revolution, such as J. C. Bailleul, See also:Chaumette, See also:Fournier (called the See also:American), See also:Herault de Sechelles, and Louvet de Couvrai. But these large collections of documents are not his entire output. Besides a little pamphlet upon See also:Danton, he has written a Histoire politique de la Revolution fran4aise (Igor), and a number of articles which have been collected in volumes under the See also:title Etudes et lecons sur la Revolution francaise (5 vols., 1893–1908). In a See also:volume entitled See also:Taine, historien de la Revolution fran4aise (1908), Aulardhas submitted the method of the eminent philosopher to a criticism, severe, perhaps even unjust, but certainly well-informed. This is, as it were, the " manifesto " of the new school of criticism applied to the political and social history of the Revolution (see Les Annales Revolutionnaires, See also:June 1908).
See A. Mathiez, " M. Aulard, historien et professeur," in the Revue de la Revolution fran4aise (See also:July 1908). (C. B.*) AULIC See also:COUNCIL (Reichshof See also:rat), an See also:organ of the See also:Holy See also:Roman See also:Empire, originally intended for executive work, but acting chiefly as a judicature, which worked from 1497 to 18o6. In the
See also:early See also:middle ages the See also:emperor had already his consiliarii ; but his council was a fluctuating See also:body of See also:personal advisers. In the 14th See also:century there first arose an See also:official council, with permanent and paid members, many of whom were legists. Its business was largely executive, and it formed something of a See also:ministry; but it had also to See also:deal with petitions addressed to the See also:- KING
- KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
- KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
- KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
- KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
- KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
- KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
- KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
- KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
- KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
- KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
- KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)
king, and accordingly it acted as a supreme See also:court of judicature. It was thus parallel to the king's council, or concilium continuum, of medieval See also:England; while by its See also:side, during the 15th century, stood the Kammergericht, composed of the legal members of the council, in much the same way as the See also:Star Chamber stood beside the See also:English council. But the real history of the Aulic Council, as that See also:term was understood in the later days of the Empire, begins with See also:Maximilian I. in 1497-1498. In these years Maximilian created three See also:organs (apparently following the precedent set by his Burgundian ancestors in the See also:Netherlands)—a Hofrat, a See also:Hof kammer for See also:finance, and a Hofkanzlei. Primarily intended for the hereditary dominions of Maximilian, these bodies were also intended for the whole Empire ; and the Hofrat was to deal with " all and every business which may flow in from the Empire, Christendom at large, or the king's hereditary principalities." It was thus to be the supreme executive and judicial organ, discharging all business except that of finance and the drafting of documents; and it was intended to serve Maximilian as a point d'appui for the See also:monarchy against the See also:system of oligarchical committees, instituted by Berthold, See also:archbishop of See also:Mainz. But it was difficult to work such a body both for the Empire and for the hereditary principalities; and under See also:Ferdinand I. it became an organ for the Empire alone (circ. 1558), the hereditary principalities being removed from its See also:cognizance. As such an imperial organ, its See also:composition and See also:powers were fixed by the treaty of See also:Westphalia of 1648. (I) It consisted of about 20 members—a See also:president, a See also:vice-president, the vice-See also:chancellor of the Empire, and some 18 other members. These came partly from the Empire at large, partly (and in greater See also:numbers) from the hereditary lands of the emperor. There were two benches, one of the nobles, one of doctors of See also:civil See also:law; six of the members must be Protestants. The council followed the See also:person of the emperor, and was therefore stationed at See also:Vienna; it was paid by the emperor, and he nominated its members, whose See also:- OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")
office terminated with his life—an arrangement which made the council more dependent than it should have been on the emperor's will. (2) Its powers were nominally both executive and judicial. (a) Its executive powers were small: it gradually lost everything except the formal business of See also:investiture with imperial fiefs and the See also:confirmation of charters, its other powers being taken over by the Geheimritte. These Geheimr¢te, a narrow body of See also:secret counsellors, had already become a determinate concilium by 1527; and though at first only concerned with See also:foreign affairs, they acquired, from the middle of the 16th century onwards, the See also:power of dealing with imperial affairs in lieu of the Aulic Council. (b) In its judicial aspect, the Aulic Council, exercising the emperor's judicial powers on his behalf, and thus succeeding, as it were, to the old Kammergericht, had exclusive cognizance of matters See also:relating to imperial fiefs, criminal charges against immediate vassals of the Empire, imperial charters, See also:Italian affairs, and cases " reserved " for the emperor. In all other matters, the Aulic Council was a competitor for judicial work with the Imperial Chamber 1 (Reichskammergericht, a tribunal dating from the See also:great See also:diet of See also:Worms of 1495: see under IMPERIAL CHAMBER). It was determined in 1648 that the one of these two judicial authorities which first dealt with a See also:case should alone have competence to pursue it. An See also:appeal See also:lay from the decision of the council to the emperor, and See also:judgment on appeal was given by those members of the council who had not joined in the See also:original decision, though in important cases they might be afforced by members of the diet. Neither the council nor the chamber could
' The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor, with its members nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public court of the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of the Empire.917
deal with cases of See also:outlawry, except to prepare such cases for the decision of the diet. To-See also:day the archives of the Aulic Council are in Vienna, though parts of its records have been given to the See also:German states which they concern.
AULIE-ATA, a See also:town and fort of See also:Russian See also:Turkestan, See also:province of Syr-darya, 152 M. N.E. of See also:Tashkent, on the Talas See also:river, at the western end of the See also:Alexander range, its See also:altitude being 5700 ft. The inhabitants are mostly Salts and Tajiks, trading in See also:cattle, horses and hides. Pop. (1897) 12,006.
End of Article: AULARD, FRANCOIS
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