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PIUS , the name of ten popes. Plus I., See also:

pope from about 141 to 154. He was the See also:brother of See also:Hermas, author of the Shepherd. Plus II. (Enea Silvio de' See also:Piccolomini, known in literature as See also:Aeneas Silvius), pope from 1458 to 1464, was See also:born on the 18th of See also:October 1405, at Corsignano (afterward called See also:Pienza after him), near See also:Siena. His See also:family, though poor, was See also:noble, .and claimed to trace descent from See also:Romulus. The eldest of eighteen See also:children, he had to See also:work on the See also:farm with his See also:father, until a See also:priest taught him the rudiments of letters, which enabled him, at the See also:age of eighteen, to go as a poor student to Siena, dividing his See also:time between severe humanistic studies and a See also:life of sensual See also:pleasure. He was attracted to See also:Florence by the teaching of See also:Filelfo. His father urged him to become a lawyer, but he accepted the position of secretary to Domenico Capranica, See also:bishop of See also:Fermo, and went with him to the See also:council of See also:Basel, where he stayed several years (1431-1435), changing masters whenever he could improve his position. As secretary of the bishop of See also:Novara he became engaged in a See also:conspiracy against Pope See also:Eugenius IV.; his See also:master was caught and imprisoned, and Aeneas only saved himself by a hasty See also:flight. He was next (1435) employed as secretary of See also:Cardinal See also:Nicholas Albergati (d. 1443) at the See also:congress of See also:Arras, where See also:peace was made between See also:France and See also:Burgundy.

From here he took a See also:

long See also:journey to See also:Scotland and See also:England, on a See also:secret See also:diplomatic See also:mission; he had numerous adventures, in one of which he nearly lost his life. In 1436 he was back at Basel, and., although a layman, obtained a seat in the council and exercised considerable See also:influence. In See also:order to See also:control it better Eugenius tried to get the council to move to Florence; a minority agreed and seceded; the See also:majority, however, stayed where they were and took vigorous See also:measures against the pope, culminating in his deposition on the 25th of See also:June 1438. Aeneas took an active See also:part in the council; and though he still declined to take orders, he was given a position on the conciliar See also:conclave which elected Amadeus of See also:Savoy as pope under the See also:title of See also:Felix V. In return for his services Felix made Aeneas papal secretary. A new See also:period of his career opened in 1442, when he was sent by the council to take part in the See also:diet of See also:Frankfort-on-See also:Main. Here he met See also:Frederick III. of See also:Germany, who made him poet See also:laureate and his private secretary. He ingratiated himself with the See also:chancellor, Kaspar Schlick, at See also:Vienna, one of whose adventures he celebrated in See also:Lucretia and Eurialus, a novel in the See also:style of See also:Boccaccio. At this period he also wrote his witty but immoral See also:play, Chrisis. In 1446 he took orders as subdeacon, and wrote that he meant to reform, " forsaking See also:Venus for Bacchus," chiefly on the ground of satiety, and also, as he frankly wrote, because the clerical profession offered him more advantages than he could secure outside it. Aeneas was useful to Frederick as a diplomatist, and managed to give all parties the impression that he was the devoted See also:advocate of each. During the struggle between pope and council he induced Frederick to be neutral for a while.

He tcok an important part in the diet of See also:

Nuremberg (1444), and being sent on an See also:embassy to Eugenius in the following See also:year he made his peace with the pope. At the diet of Frankfort (See also:Sept. 1446) Aeneas was instrumental in changing the majority of the See also:electors from their hostile position towards pope and See also:emperor into a friendly one. He brought the See also:good See also:news to Eugenius shortly before his See also:death (Feb. 7, ,447), and made See also:friends with the new pope, Nicholas V., by whom he was made bishop of Siena. He was an See also:agent of Frederick in making the celebrated See also:concordat of Vienna (also called concordat of See also:Aschaffenburg) in See also:February 1448. His services to pope and emperor brought him the titles of See also:prince of the See also:empire and cardinal, positions which he used rather unscrupulously to get as many lucrative benefices into his hands as possible. Those in Germany brought him two thousand ducats a year. The death of See also:Calixtus III. (who succeeded Nicholas V.) occurred on the 5th of See also:August 1458. After a hot fight in the conclave, in which it seemed that the wealthy See also:French cardinal, See also:Guillaume d'See also:Estouteville, See also:archbishop of See also:Rouen and bishop of See also:Ostia, would be elected, the intrigues of Aeneas and of his friend Rodrigo See also:Borgia (later the notorious See also:Alexander VI.) gave the victory to the cardinal of Siena, who took the title Pius II., with a See also:reminiscence of See also:Virgil's " Pius Aeneas." The humanists hailed his See also:election with joy, and flocked around to secure a See also:share of the good things, but they were bitterly disappointed, as Pius did not prove himself the liberal and undiscriminating See also:patron they hoped. The fall of See also:Constantinople in 1453 had made a deep impression upon Pius, and he never ceased to preach the crusade against the Turk.

In See also:

September 1459 he opened a congress at See also:Mantua for the purpose of considering what could be done in this direction. His proposals for the raising of troops and See also:money met with See also:general opposition. The French were angry because Pius had crowned the See also:Spanish claimant, See also:Ferdinand, See also:king of See also:Naples, and thus disposed of the pretensions of Rene of See also:Anjou. The Germans also objected to Pius's plans, but finally agreed to furnish some troops and money, promises which they did not carry out. Pius See also:felt how much the position of the papacy had fallen in importance since the days of See also:Urban and See also:Innocent III., and, believing that the See also:change was due to the general See also:councils which had asserted See also:power over the popes, he changed his position, which before his election to the papal See also:throne had been that of a warm advocate of the conciliar claims, and issued (See also:Jan. 146o) the See also:bull Execrabilis et in pristinis temporibus inauditus, in which he condemned as heretical the See also:doctrine that the councils were See also:superior to the popes, and proclaimed the See also:anathema against any one who should dare to See also:appeal to one. He issued another bull at the same time, promising forgiveness of sins to those who would take part in the crusade, and then dissolved the congress. While Pius was at Mantua See also:war See also:broke out between the French and Spanish in See also:southern See also:Italy, and a rising of the barons devastated the Campagna. Hurrying back to See also:Rome Pius succeeded in quelling the disorders, and sent his See also:nephew See also:Antonio Todeschini to the aid of Ferdinand, who made him See also:duke of See also:Amalfi and gave him his natural daughter Maria in See also:marriage. This measure still further alienated the pope from the French, with whom he was at that time negotiating for the See also:abrogation of the Pragmatic See also:Sanction. When See also:Louis XI. came to the throne (Nov. 1461), he sent to Pius saying that he had abolished the Pragmatic Sanction, hoping in return to get the See also:kingdom of Naples for his countryman Rene of Anjou.

When Pius refused to do anything to the See also:

prejudice of Ferdinand, Louis changed his attitude, and allowed the protests of the university of See also:Paris and the parlements to persuade him to restore the See also:ancient liberties of the Gallican See also:Church. At the same time a serious See also:quarrel with the Germans prevented anything being done towards a crusade. See also:George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, was plotting to depose the emperor Frederick III., who was sup-ported by Pius. Diether, archbishop of See also:Mainz, took the See also:side of Podiebrad, and replied to Pius's measures by appealing to a general council. He was declared deposed by the pope, but kept his seat, and in 1464 compelled the pope to recognize him again. The quarrel with Podiebrad, who was accused of supporting the Utraquist See also:heresy, continued with increasing bitterness, but without any decisive result, until the death of Pius. In the meantime the pope did what he could to further the cause of the crusade. The See also:discovery of See also:alum mines at See also:Tolfa gave him an unexpected pecuniary resource, and to stimulate the zeal of Christendom, Pius took the See also:cross on the 18th of June 1464. He set out for See also:Venice, where he intended to See also:sail for the See also:East, but he was attacked with a See also:fever, and on the 14th of August 1464 he died. Pius II. was a voluminous author. Besides poems, a novel and a play, he wrote a number of orations, which were considered See also:models of eloquence in their See also:day. His most valuable work, however, is his Commentaries, a See also:history of his own life and times, told in an interesting and rational manner.

He is very See also:

frank about himself, and most of the adverse judgments which have been pronounced on his See also:character have been based on his own confessions. He was an opportunist, sailing along with any favourable See also:breeze, and not quite enough in See also:earnest about anything to pursue the same tack steadily for long. We must give him the See also:credit, however, of advocating a statesman-like policy in the interests of the whole of See also:Europe in trying to get the See also:powers to unite against the See also:Turks, who threatened to averwhelm them all. See See also:Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (1904), vol. xv., where a full bibliography will be found; M. See also:Creighton, History of the Papacy during the See also:Reformation, vol. ii. (See also:London, 1882) ; L. Pastor, History of the Popes from the See also:close of the See also:Middle Ages (Eng. trans., 1896, vol. ii.) ; Voigt, Pius II. (1856-1863). The Commentaries of Pius were published in 1584, under the name of Gobelinus Persona. His other See also:works are found in Aeneae Silvii See also:opera omnia (Basel, 1551). See also W. Boulting, Aeneas Silvius (1909).

(P. SM.) Plus III. (See also:

Francesco Nanni-Todeschini-Piccolomini), pope from the 22nd of September to the 18th of October 1503, was born at Siena on the 9th of May 1439. After studying See also:law at See also:Perugia, he was made archbishop of Siena and cardinal-See also:deacon of St Eustachio, when only twenty-two years of age, by his See also:uncle Pius II., who permitted him to assume the name and arms of the Piccolomini. He was employed by subsequent popes in several important legations, as by See also:Paul II. at the diet of See also:Regensburg, and by See also:Sixtus IV. to secure the restoration of ecclesiastical authority in See also:Umbria. He bravely opposed the policy of Alexander VI., and was elected pope, amid the disturbances consequent upon the death of the latter, through the interested influence of Cardinal della Rovere, afterwards See also:Julius II., and was crowned on the 8th of October 1503. He permitted Cesare Borgia to return to Rome, but promptly took in See also:hand the reform of the See also:curia. Pius was a See also:man of blameless life, and would doubtless have accomplished much had he lived. His successor was Julius II. See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. vi., trans. by F. I.

Antrobus (London, 1898) ; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. v. (Lon-See also:

don, 1901); F. See also:Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. trans. by Mrs G. W. See also:Hamilton (London, 1900-1902) ; Piccolomini, "Il Pontificato di Pio III.," inArchivio stor. ital., vol.,v. (Firenze, 1903). Plus IV. (Giovanni Angelo See also:Medici, or " Medighino "), pope from 1559 to 1565, was born at See also:Milan on the 31st of See also:March 1499, of an obscure family, not related to the Medici of Florence (a claim to such relationship was advanced after Giovanni Angelo had attained to prominence). The See also:fortune of the family was established by an See also:elder brother, Gian Giacomo, who fought his way to the marquisate of Marignano and distinguished him-self in the service of the emperor. Giovanni Angelo studied in See also:Bologna and See also:Pavia, and for some time followed the law. Entering the service of the Church, he found favour with Paul III., who entrusted him with the governorship of several important towns, and in 1549 made him a cardinal.

Julius III. sent him upon See also:

missions to Germany and See also:Hungary. With Paul IV. he was out of favour, because not in sympathy with his policy, and accordingly retired to Milan. In the protracted and momentous conclave that followed the death of Paul the election of Pius (Dec. 25, 1559) was due to a See also:compromise between the Spanish and French factions. In temperament and See also:habit Pius was the See also:antithesis of his predecessor: affable, vivacious, convivial. He was, moreover, astute, diplomatic and experienced in affairs. He allowed the reform See also:movement See also:free course, but tried to repair certain in-justices of Paul IV. (for example, releasing and reinstating See also:Morone, who had been imprisoned on a See also:charge of heresy), and mitigated some of his extreme decrees. But to the nephews of Paul he showed no See also:mercy: they were charged with various crimes, condemned, upon testimony of suspicious validity, and executed on the 5th of March 1561. The Colonnesi, who had been active hl. the See also:prosecution, recovered Paliano. But under Pius V. See also:judgment was reversed, the memory of the Caraffa rehabilitated, and restitution made to the family. Pius IV. himself was not guiltless of nepotism; but the bestowment of the cardinalate and the archbishopric of Milan upon his nephew, the pure and upright Carlo See also:Borromeo, redounded to the See also:honour of his pontificate and the welfare of the church.

With England lost to the papacy, Germany overwhelmingly See also:

Protestant, and France on the See also:verge of See also:civil war, Pius realized how fatuous was the See also:anti-Spanish policy of his predecessor. He therefore recognized Ferdinand as emperor, and conciliated See also:Philip II. with extensive ecclesiastical privileges. But subsequently, antagonized by Philip's arrogance, he inclined to-wards France, and gave troops and money for the war against the See also:Huguenots. After a suspension of ten years the council of See also:Trent reconvened on the 18th of See also:January 1562. Among the demands presented by the various nations were, the recognition of the equality of the episcopate, communion in both kinds, clerical marriage, and the use of the See also:vernacular in Church services. It required all the pope's See also:diplomacy to avoid compliance on the one hand, and a See also:breach with the powers on the other. Thanks to Morone and Borromeo, however, he achieved his end. The council was dissolved on the 4th of See also:December 1563, and its decrees and See also:definitions confirmed by the pope (Jan. 26, 1564), who reserved to himself the See also:sole right of See also:interpretation. The decrees were immediately accepted by most of the See also:Catholic states; only tardily, however, and with See also:reservation by France and See also:Spain. Various measures were taken for carrying the decrees into effect: See also:residence was strictly enjoined; See also:plurality of benefices prohibited; the See also:Inquisition resumed, under the See also:presidency of Ghislieri (afterwards Pius V.); a new edition of the See also:Index published (1564) ; and the " Tridentine creed " promulgated (Nov. 13, 1564).

After the termination of the council Pius indulged his See also:

desire for ease and pleasure, to the See also:great offence of the rigorists. A certain fanatic, Benedetto See also:Accolti, brooding over the pope's unworthiness, felt inspired to remove him, but his See also:plot was discovered and punished (1565). Pius fortified Rome, and contributed much to the embellishment of the See also:city—among other works, the church of Sta Maria degli Angeli in the See also:Baths of See also:Diocletian; the Porta Pia; the See also:Villa Pia in the Vatican Gardens; and the See also:Palace of the Conservatori. He died on the 9th of December, and was succeeded by Pius V. See Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De vitis pontiff. rom. (a contemporary of Pius) ; Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. rom. (Rome 1601–1602; also contemporary); T. See also:Muller, Das Konklave Pius IV. (See also:Gotha, 1889; more comprehensive than the title suggests); See also:Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., See also:Austin), i. 323 seq., 358 seq. ; and v. See also:Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. iii.

2, 534 seq., 730 seq. (T. F. C.) Pius V. (Michele Ghislieri), pope from 1566 to 1572, was born on the 17th of January 1504, in the Milanese. At the age of fourteen he became a Dominican See also:

monk. His austere life, his vehemence in attacking heresy and his rigorous discipline as See also:prior of several monasteries proved his fitness for the work of reform, and he was appointed inquisitor in See also:Como, where his zeal provoked such opposition as to compel his recall (1550). The See also:chief inquisitor, Caraffa, convinced of his value, straightway sent him upon a mission to See also:Lombardy, and in 1551 appointed him See also:commissary-general of the See also:Holy See also:Office. When Caraffa became pope, Ghislieri was made bishop of See also:Nepi and See also:Sutri, cardinal (1557), and finally See also:grand inquisitor, which office he discharged in a manner to make the name of " Fra Michele dell' Inquisizione " a terror. In this office he was continued by Pius IV., whom, however, he repelled by his excessive severity, and antagonized by his censoriousness and obstinacy. But the movement with which he was so fully identified was irresistible; and, after the death of Pius IV., the rigorists, led by Borromeo, had no difficulty in making him pope (Jan. 7, 1566).

Though pope, Pius did not cease to be a monk: his ascetic mode of life and his devotions suffered no interruption. With-out delay he applied himself to the work of reform. Decrees and ordinances were issued with astonishing rapidity: the papal See also:

court was rid of everything unseemly, and became a See also:model of sobriety; prostitutes were driven from the city. or confined to a certain See also:quarter; severe penalties were attached to See also:Sunday desecration, See also:profanity and See also:animal baiting; clerical residence was enforced; conventuals were compelled to live in strict seclusion according to their vows; catechetical instruction was enjoined. A new See also:catechism appeared in 1566, followed by an improved See also:breviary (1568), and an improved See also:missal (1570). The use of indulgences and dispensations was restricted, and the See also:penitential See also:system reformed. Pius was the avowed enemy of nepotism. One nephew, it is true, he made cardinal, but allowed him no influence: the See also:rest of his relatives he kept at a distance. By the constitution Admonet nos (March 29, 1567), he forbade the reinvestitureof fiefs that should revert to the Holy See, and See also:bound the cardinals by See also:oath to observe it. In March 1569 Pius ordered the See also:expulsion of the See also:Jews from the states of the Church. For commercial reasons they were allowed to remain in Rome and See also:Ancona, but only upon humiliating conditions. In February 1571, the Umiliati, a degenerate monastic order of Milan, was suppressed on See also:account of its complicity in an See also:attempt upon the life of the archbishop, Carlo Borromeo. The election of Pius to the papacy was the enthronement of the Inquisition: the utter extinction of heresy was his See also:darling ambition, and the See also:possession of power only intensified his See also:passion.

The rules governing the Holy Office were sharpened; old charges, long suspended, were revived; See also:

rank offered no See also:protection, but rather exposed its possessor to fiercer attack; none were pursued more relentlessly than the cultured, among whom many of the Protestant doctrines had found See also:acceptance; princes and .states withdrew their protection, and courted the favour of the Holy See by surrendering distinguished offenders. Cosmo de' Medici handed over Pietro See also:Carnesecchi (and two years later received in See also:reward the title of grand duke, Sept. 1569); Venice delivered Guido Zanetti; Philip II., Bartolome de See also:Carranza, the See also:arch-bishop of See also:Toledo. In March 1571 the See also:Congregation of the Index was established and greater thoroughness introduced into the pursuit of heretical literature. The result was the flight of hundreds of printers to See also:Switzerland and Germany. Thus heresy was hunted out of Italy: the only regret of Pius was that he had sometimes been too lenient. In 1567 Pius condemned the doctrines of See also:Michael See also:Baius, a See also:professor of See also:Louvain, who taught See also:justification by faith, asserted the sufficiency of the Scriptures, and disparaged outward forms. Baius submitted; but his doctrines were afterwards taken up by the Jansenists. The See also:political activities of Pius were controlled by one principle, war upon the heretic and infidel. He spurred Philip II. on in the See also:Netherlands, and approved the bloody work of See also:Alva. He denounced all temporizing with the Huguenots, and commanded their utter extermination (ad internecionem usque). While it cannot be proven that he was privy to the See also:massacre of St See also:Bartholomew, still his violent counsels could not fail to stir up the most See also:savage passions.

He exclaimed loudly against the emperor's See also:

toleration of Protestantism, and all but wished his defeat at the hands of the Turks. He urged a general See also:coalition of the Catholic states against the Protestants; and yet published, in sharper See also:form, the bull In coena domini (1568), which was regarded by these very states as an attack upon their See also:sovereignty. One of his cherished schemes was the invasion of England and the dethronement of See also:Elizabeth, whom he excommunicated and declared a usurper (Feb. 25, 1570); but he was obliged to content himself with abetting plots and fomenting rebellions. He did, however, effect an See also:alliance with Spain and Venice against the Turks, and contributed to the victory of See also:Lepanto (Oct. 6, 1571). Thus lived and wrought Pius, presenting " a See also:strange See also:union of singleness of purpose, magnanimity, austerity and profound religious feeling with sour bigotry, relentless hatred and bloody persecution " (Ranke). He died on the 1st of May 1572; and was canonized by See also:Clement XI. in 1712. See Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. rom. (Rome, 1601–1602 ; a contemporary of Pius) ; Acta sanctorum, maij, torn. i. pp. 616 seq., containing the life by Gabuzio (16o5), based upon an earlier one by Catena (1586) ; See also:Falloux, Hist. de St See also:Pie V. (3rd ed., Paris, 1858), eulogistic; Mendham, Life and Pontificate of St Pius V.

(London, 1832), a See also:

bitter polemic. The life of Pius has also been written by Fuenmayor (See also:Madrid, 1595), See also:Paolo Alessandro See also:Maffei (Rome, 1712), and by T. M. Granello (Bologna, 1877). His letters have been edited by Catena (vide supra), Goubau (See also:Antwerp, 1640), and a select number in a French See also:translation, by de See also:Potter (Paris, 1826). See also Hilliger, See also:Die Wahl Pius V. zum Papste (See also:Leipzig, 1891); Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 361 seq., 384 seq. ; and von Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. iii. 2, 557 seq. (T. F. C.) Plus VI.

(Giovanni Angelo Braschi), pope from 1775 to 1799, was born at See also:

Cesena, on the 27th of December 1717. After taking the degree of See also:doctor of See also:laws he went to See also:Ferrara and became the private secretary of Cardinal See also:Ruffo, in whose bishopric of Ostia and See also:Velletri he held the See also:post of uditore until 1753. His skill in the conduct of a mission to the court of Naples won him the esteem of See also:Benedict XIV., who appointed him one of his secretaries and See also:canon of St See also:Peter's. In 1758 he was raised to the prelature, and in 1766 to the treasurership of the apostolic chamber by Clement XIII. Those who chafed under his conscientious economies cunningly induced Clement XIV. to create him cardinal-priest of See also:San Onofrio on the 26th of See also:April 1973, a promotion which rendered him for the time innocuous. In the four months' conclave which followed the death of Clement XIV., Spain, France and See also:Portugal at length dropped their objection to Braschi, who was after all one of the more moderate opponents of the anti-Jesuit policy of the previous pope, and he was elected to the vacant see on the 15th of February 1775. His earlier acts gave See also:fair promise of liberal See also:rule and reform in the defective See also:administration of the papal states. He showed discrimination in his benevolences, reprimanded Potenziani, the See also:governor of Rome, for unsuppressed disorders, appointed a council of cardinals to remedy the See also:state of the finances and relieve the pressure of imposts, called to account Nicolo Bischi for the See also:expenditure of moneys intended for the See also:purchase of See also:grain, reduced the See also:annual disbursements by the suppression of several See also:pensions, and adopted a system of bounties for the encouragement of See also:agriculture. The circumstances of his election, however, involved him in difficulties from the outset of his pontificate. He had received the support of the ministers of the Crowns and the anti-Jesuit party upon a tacit understanding that he would continue the See also:action of Clement, by whose brief See also:Dominus ac redemptor (1973) the See also:dissolution of the Society of Jesus had been pronounced. On the other hand the zelanti, who believed him secretly inclined towards Jesuitism, expected from him some reparation for the alleged wrongs of the previous reign. As a result of these complications Pius was led into a See also:series of See also:half measures which gave little See also:satisfaction to either party: although it is perhaps largely due to him that the order was able to See also:escape shipwreck in See also:White See also:Russia and See also:Silesia; at but one juncture did he even seriously consider its universal re-See also:establishment, namely in 1792, as a See also:bulwark against revolutionary ideas.

Besides facing dissatisfaction with this temporizing policy, Pius met with See also:

practical protests tending to the See also:limitation of papal authority. To be sure " Febronius," the chief See also:German See also:literary exponent of the old Gallican ideas, was himself led (not without See also:scandal) to retract; but his positions were adopted in See also:Austria. Here the social and ecclesiastical reforms undertaken by See also:Joseph II. and his See also:minister Kaunitz touched the supremacy of Rome so nearly that in the See also:hope of staying them Pius adopted the exceptional course of visiting Vienna in See also:person. He See also:left Rome on the 27th of February 1782, and, though magnificently received by the emperor, his mission proved a fiasco; he was, however, able a few years later to curb those German archbishops who, in 1786 at the Congress at See also:Ems, had shown a tendency towards See also:independence. In Naples difficulties necessitating certain concessions in respect of feudal See also:homage were raised by the minister Tannucci, and more serious disagreements arose with See also:Leopold I. and Scipione de' See also:Ricci, bishop of See also:Pistoia and See also:Prato, upon the questions of reform in See also:Tuscany; but Pius did not think See also:fit to condemn the offensive decrees of the See also:synod of Pistoia (1786) till nearly eight years had elapsed. At the out-break of the French Revolution Pius was compelled to see the old Gallivan Church suppressed, the pontifical and ecclesiastical possessions in France confiscated and an effigy of himself burnt by the populace at the Palais Royal. The See also:murder of the republican agent, See also:Hugo Basseville, in the streets of Rome (January 1793) gave new ground of offence; the papal court was charged with complicity by the French See also:Convention; and Pius threw in his See also:lot with the See also:league against France. In 1796 See also:Napoleon invaded Italy, defeated the papal troops and occupied Ancona and See also:Loreto. Pius sued for peace, which was granted at See also:Tolentino on the 19th of February 1791; but on the 28th of December of that year, in a See also:riot created by some See also:Italian and French revolutionists, General Duphot of the French embassy was killed and a new pretext furnished for invasion. General See also:Berthier marched to Rome, entered it unopposed on the 13th of February 1798,and, proclaiming a See also:republic, demanded of the pope the renunciation of his temporal authority. Upon his refusal he was taken prisoner, and on the 20th of February was escorted from the Vatican to Siena, and thence to the Certosa near Florence. The French See also:declaration of war against Tuscany led to his removal by way of See also:Parma, See also:Piacenza, See also:Turin and See also:Grenoble to the citadel of See also:Valence, where he died six See also:weeks later, on the 29th of August 1799.

Pius VII. succeeded him. The name of Pius VI. is associated with many and often unpopular attempts to revive the splendour of See also:

Leo X. in the promotion of See also:art and public works—the words " Munificentia Pii VI. P. M." graven in all parts of the city, giving rise amongst his impoverished subjects to such See also:satire as the insertion of a See also:minute See also:loaf in the hands of Pasquin with that inscription beneath it. He is best remembered in connexion with the establishment of the museum of the Vatican, begun at his See also:suggestion by his predecessor, and with an unpractical and expensive attempt to drain the Pontine marshes. Plus VII. (See also:Luigi Barnaba Chiaramonti), pope from 1800 to 1823, the son of See also:Count Scipione Chiaramonti and the deeply religious Countess Ghini, was born at Cesena on the 14th of August 1740 (not 1742). After studying at See also:Ravenna, at the age of sixteen he entered the See also:Benedictine monastery of St See also:Mary in his native See also:town: here he was known as Gregorio. Almost immediately he was sent by his superiors to See also:Padua and to Rome for a further course of studies in See also:theology. He then held various teaching appointments in the colleges of his order at Parma and at Rome. He was:created an See also:abbot of his order by his relative Pius VI., who also appointed him bishop of See also:Tivoli on the 16th of December 1782, and on the 14th of February 1785, because of excellent conduct of office, raised him to the cardinalate and the see of Imela. At the death of Pius VI. the conclave met at Venice on the 3oth of See also:November 1799, with the result that Chiaramonti, the See also:candidate of the French cardinal-archbishop See also:Maury, who was most skilfully supported by the secretary of the conclave Ercole See also:Consalvi, was elected pope on the 14th of March 1800.

He was crowned on the 21st of that See also:

month; in the following See also:July he entered Rome, on the 11th of August appointed Consalvi cardinal-deacon and secretary of state, and busied himself with administrative reforms. His See also:attention was at once directed to the ecclesiastical anarchy of France, where, apart from the broad See also:schism on the question of submission to the civil constitution of the See also:clergy, discipline had been so far neglected that a large proportion of the churches were closed, dioceses existed without bishops or with more than one, See also:Jansenism and clerical marriage were on the increase, and indifference or hostility widely prevailed amongst the See also:people. Encouraged by Napoleon's desire for the re-establishment of the See also:Roman Catholic See also:religion in France, Pius negotiated the celebrated concordat, which was signed at Paris on the 15th of July and ratified by Pius on the 14th of August 18o1 (see CONCORDAT). The importance gf this agreement was, however, considerably lessened by the `articles organiques " appended to it by the French See also:government on the 8th of April 1802. In 1804 Napoleon opened negotiations to secure at the pope's hands his formal See also:consecration as emperor. After some hesitation Pius was induced to perform the ceremony at Notre See also:Dame and to extend his visit to Paris for four months; but in return for these favours he was able to obtain from Napoleon merely one or two See also:minor concessions. Pius, who arrived in Rome on the 16th of May 18o5, gave to the See also:college of cardinals a See also:rose-coloured See also:report of his experiences; but disillusionment was rapid. Napoleon soon began to disregard the Italian concordat of 1803, and himself decreed the dissolution of the marriage of his brother See also:Jerome with See also:Miss Patterson of See also:Baltimore. The irritation between France and the Vatican increased so rapidly that on the 2nd of February 18o8. Rome was occupied by General Miollis; a month later the provinces of Ancona, See also:Macerata, Fermo and See also:Urbino were See also:united to the kingdom of Italy, and diplomatic relations between Napoleon and Rome were broken off; finally, by a See also:decree issued from Schonbrunn on the 17th of May 1809, the emperor united the papal states to France. Pius retaliated by a bull excommunicating the invaders; and, to prevent, insurrection, Miollis—either on his own responsi. bility, as Napoleon afterwards asserted, or by order of the latter—employed General Radet to take possession of the pope's person. The palace on the Quirinal was broken open during the See also:night of July 5th, and, on the persistent refusal of Pius to rescind the bull of See also:excommunication and to renounce his temporal authority, he was carried off, first to Grenoble, thence after an See also:interval to See also:Savona on the Gulf of See also:Genoa.

Here he steadfastly refused canonical institution to the bishops nominated by Napoleon; and, when it was discovered that he was maintaining a secret See also:

correspondence, he was deprived of all books, even of See also:pen and See also:ink. At length, his nerves shattered by See also:insomnia and fever, he was willing to give satisfactory oral assurances as to the institution of the French bishops. In May 1812 Napoleon, on the pretext that the See also:English might liberate the pope if he were left at Savona, caused the aged and sick pontiff to be transported to See also:Fontainebleau; the journey was so hard that on See also:Mount Cenis Pius received the See also:viaticum. Arriving safely, however, at Fontainebleau, he was lodged in a See also:suite of See also:regal magnificence to await the return of the emperor from See also:Moscow. When Napoleon arrived, he entered into See also:personal negotiations with the pope, who on the 25th of January 1813 assented to a concordat so degrading that his See also:conscience found no See also:relief till the 24th of March, when, on the See also:advice of the cardinal Pacca and Consalvi, he abrogated it; and on the 9th of May he proceeded to defy the emperor by declaring invalid all the See also:official acts of the new French bishops. In consequence of the See also:battle of Leipzig and the entry of the allied forces into France, Napoleon ordered in January 1814 that the pope be returned to Savona for safe keeping; but soon the course of events forced him to liberate the pope and give back the States of the Church. On the 19th of March Pius left Savona, and was received with rejoicing at Rome on the 24th of May. While Consalvi at the Congress of Vienna was securing the restitution of nearly all the papal territory, reaction had full See also:swing at Rome; the See also:Jesuits were restored; the French legislation, much of which was of great social value, was repealed; the Index and the Inquisition were revived. On his return Consalvi conducted a more enlightened and highly centralized administration, based largely on the famous Motu proprio of 1816; nevertheless the finances were in a desperate See also:condition. Discontent centred perhaps in the Carbunari, a Liberal secret society condemned by the pope in 1821. The chief triumphs of Consalvi were the negotiation of a series of valuable concordats with all the Roman Catholic powers See also:save Austria. In the latter years of Pius's life See also:royalty often came to Rome; the pope was very gracious to exiled See also:kings and showed notable magnanimity toward the family of Napoleon.

He also attracted many artists to the city, including the greatest sculptors of the time, one of whom, the Protestant See also:

Thorwaldsen, prepared the See also:tomb in which repose the remains of the See also:gentle and courageous pontiff, who passed into rest on the 20th of August 1823. His successor was Leo XII. Plus VIII. (Francesco Xaviero Castiglioni), pope from 1829 to 1830, who came of a notable family at See also:Cingoli near Ancona, was born on the loth of November 1761. He studied canon law at Rome, became See also:vicar-general at Anagni and later at See also:Fano, and in 1800 was appointed bishop of Montalto. Because he refused the oath of See also:allegiance to the See also:Napoleonic king of Italy he was carried See also:captive to France; but in 1816 his steadfastness was rewarded by his being created cardinal-priest of Sta Maria in Trastevere; and this same year he was translated from the see of Montalto to that of Cesena. In 1821 he was made cardinal-bishop of See also:Frascati, also grand See also:penitentiary; and later he became See also:prefect of the Congregation of the Index. In the conclave which followed the death of Leo XII., Castiglioni, the candidate of France, was elected pope on the 31st of March 1829. He avoided nepotism, abandoned the system of espionage employed by his predecessor, and published an encyclical condemning See also:Bible See also:societies and secret associations. He rejoiced over Catholic emancipation in England, recognized Louis Philippe as king of the French, and exhibited a pacific spirit in dealing with the problem of mixed marriages in Germany. Worn out with work, he died on the See also:morning of the 1st of December 1830. His successor was See also:Gregory XVI.

Plus IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti), pope from 1846 to 1878, was born on the 13th of May 1792 at Sinigaglia, the See also:

fourth son of Count Jerome and Countess See also:Catherine Vollazi; the family of Mastai was of ancient descent, and the title of count came to it in the 17th See also:century, while later the elder See also:branch, allied by marriage with the Ferretti family, took that name in addition. He spent some time at the College of See also:Piarists in Volaterra, and then proceeded to Rome with the intention of entering the pontifical guard as an officer. In spite of his good connexions, he was disappointed in this aim as it became known that he suffered from See also:epilepsy. The malady, however, was surmounted; and in 1819 he was ordained priest. After ministering for some time in his native town, he accompanied Cardinal Muzzi to See also:Chile (1823). On his return he was entrusted by Leo XII. with the direction of the Roman See also:hospital of San Michele: in 183o he received the archbishopric of See also:Spoleto, in 1832 the bishopric of lmola, and in 184o Gregory XVI. created him a cardinal, with the title Santi Pietro e Marecellino. On the death of Gregory XVI. (June 1, 1846) the College of Cardinals met in conclave on the 14th of June. But their deliberations were destined to last but a See also:short while; for, on the 16th of June, Cardinal Mastai Ferretti had already obtained the requisite two-thirds majority, and ascended the papal See also:chair under the title of Pius IX. In his various capacities he had gained much popularity: he had shown himself to be of a kindly disposition and a zealous churchman, and his reputation for piety and tact stood high; he possessed, too, a winning See also:personality and a handsome presence. The reign of Pills IX. began at an extremely See also:critical time.

The problem of the government of the Papal States, transmitted to him by his predecessor, stood in urgent need of See also:

solution, for the actual conditions were altogether intolerable. The irritation of the populace had risen to such a See also:pitch that it found vent in revolts which could only be quelled by the intervention of See also:foreign powers; and the ferment in the dominions of the Church was accentuated by the fact that the revolutionary spirit was in the ascendant in all the states of Earope. The proclamatiop of a general See also:amnesty for all political offenders made an excellent impression on the people; and Pius at once instituted preparations for a reform of the administration, the judicature and the See also:financial system. The regulations affecting the censorship were mitigated, and a breath of political liberalism vitalized the whole government. Pius at once acquired the reputation of a reforming pope. But the See also:prestige so gained was not sufficient to See also:calm the people permanently, and two demands were urged with ever increasing See also:energy—a share in the government and a See also:national Italian policy. The problem of giving the people a due share in the government was one of See also:peculiar difficulty in the papal states. It was not simply a question of adjusting the claims of monarch and subject: it was necessary, at the same time, to oust the clergy—who, till then, had held all the more important offices in their own hands—from their dominant position, or at least to limit their privileges. That the clerical character of the administration could not be indefinitely retained was See also:plain enough, it would seem, to any clear-thinking statesman: for, since the restoration of the papal state in 1814, the pernicious effects of this confusion of the spiritual and the See also:secular power could no longer be denied. But Pius IX. lacked the courage and perspicacity to draw the inevitable conclusions from these premises; and the higher clergy at Rome were naturally opposed to a policy which, by laicizing the administration, would have deprived them of the power and privileges they had so long enjoyed. In these circumstances it is not surprising that the pope, while making concessions to his people, did so with reservations which, so far from restoring peace, served only to aggravate the turmoil. By a motu proprio of the 2nd of October 1847 the government of the city of Rome 'was reorganized and vested in a council of Too members, not more than four of whom were to be clerics.

But the pope reserved to himself the right of nominating the first members, and the new See also:

senate was only later to have the right of filling up vacancies by co-optation. The institution of a state council (consulta) was announced on the 19th of April 1847; and on the 14th of October it was called into existence by a mo'u proprio. It consisted of 24 councillors, who were to be selected by the pope from a See also:list of candidates to be submitted by the provincial assemblies. A cardinal and one other See also:prelate were to be at its See also:head. The consulta was to be divided into four sections, dealing with (r) legislation, (2) See also:finance, (3) See also:internal administration, (4) the See also:army and public works. Matters of importance were, however, to be submitted to the College of Cardinals, after being debated in the consulta. A motu proprio of the 29th of December altered the constitution of the ministerial council. Nine mutually See also:independent ministries were formed, and the principle of the responsibility of the ministers was established: but all the positions were filled by clerics. The agitation for constitutional government was urgent in the demand for further concessions; but they came too See also:late. On the 12th of February a See also:proclamation of the pope transferred three portfolios to the laity; but the impression produced by the news of the revolution in Paris nullified the effect. At the formation of the See also:Antonelli See also:ministry (March 11), only the three departments of foreign affairs, finance and See also:education, were reserved by the clergy; while the remaining six were entrusted to laymen. On the 14th of March 1848 Pius took the last step, and published a constitution (Fundamental See also:Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church).

Two See also:

chambers were to be formed. The first (See also:alto consiglio) consisted of members nominated for life by the pope; the second, of a See also:hundred elected deputies. The laws adopted by these two chambers had first to undergo the See also:scrutiny of the College of Cardinals, before being submitted to the pope for his assent or rejection. Ecclesiastical, or ecclesiastico-political, affairs were exempted from the See also:jurisdiction of the See also:parliament; which was further required to abstain from the enactment of laws conflicting with the discipline of the Church, and from See also:criticism of the diplomatic and religious relations of the Holy See with foreign powers. The utility of this constitution was never tested; for the demand for an See also:extension of popular rights was now eclipsed by a still more passionate aspiration towards the national unity of Italy. This nationalist movement at once took head against Austria. On the 18th of March the revolution broke out in Milan, and King See also:Albert of See also:Sardinia undertook the conduct of the war against the emperor. When news of the events at Milan reached Rome the populace was swept away in a whirlwind of See also:enthusiasm: the See also:Austrian embassy was mobbed; the imperial arms, surmounting the main See also:gate of the palace, were torn down; and great troops of See also:volunteers clamoured to be led against Austria. Pius was carried away at first on the See also:flood-See also:tide of excitement, and seemed,after his proclamation of the 3oth of March, on the point of conferring his blessing upon the war against Austria. But the course of political events during the next few weeks damped his ardour. When, on the 29th of April, in his allocation to the cardinals, he proclaimed the papal See also:neutrality, the See also:Romans received his vacillation as a sign of treachery; and the See also:storm, precluded from discharging its fury on Austria, broke over his head. When the ministry in power resigned office on the 1st of May, the Mamiani administration was formed, only one cleric being included.

Mamiani himself, whose writings were on the Index, had little sympathy with the pope, and did all that was possible to See also:

complete the secularization of government in the States of the Church. He received his dismissal on the 1st of August, and was followed by Count Fabbri, then by Count de See also:Rossi, who made the last attempt to restore order by a moderate liberal policy. On the 15th of November, as he was about to open the Chambers, he was assassinated on the See also:staircase leading to the See also:hall of session. A state of anarchy ensued. Armed bands gathered before the Quirinal, and attempted to storm it. To avoid further bloodshed the pope was compelled to assent to the formation of a radically democratic ministry under Galetti. The Swiss, who composed the papal guard, were disbanded; and the protection of the pontiff was transferred to the civil See also:militia; in other words, Pius IX. was a prisoner. On the evening of the 24th of November he contrived by the aid of the French and Bavarian ambassadors—the duc d'See also:Harcourt and Count Spaurto leave the palace unobserved, in the See also:dress of a See also:common priest, and to reach See also:Gaeta in the kingdom of Naples. From this See also:refuge he issued a breve on the 27th of November, protesting against the See also:sacrilege practised on himself, declaring all actions forced upon him null and void, and appointing a See also:commission to carry on the government in his See also:absence. Since the Chamber declined to recognize this step, and the pope was equally resolute in refusing to hold any intercourse with the deputation which it despatched to him, a supreme Giunta was provisionally created by the Chamber on the 11th of December to See also:discharge all the functions assigned to the executive power by the constitution. On the 17th of the same month Pius made a public protest; and, as soon as the elections for a national See also:assembly were announced, he forbade any participation in them, menacing the disobedient with the penalties of the Church (Jan. 1, 1849).

The elections, however, were held; and on the 9th of February the constituent assembly decreed, by 142 votes to 23, the erection of a Roman republic. Pius answered by a protest dated the 14th of February. All the ecclesiastical See also:

property of the Roman state was now declared to be vested in the republic; convents and religious edifices were requisitioned for secular purposes; benevolent institutions were withdrawn from clerical influence; and church establishments were deprived of the right to realize ;.See also:heir possessions. In the beginning of December Pius had already appealed to the See also:European powers for assistance; and on the 7th of February 1849 it was resolved in the See also:Consistory to approach officially France, Austria, Spain and Naples, with a view to their armed intervention. The French republic, under the presidency of Louis Napoleon, was the first state to throw troops into Italy. On the 24th of April General See also:Oudinot appeared before Civita Vecchia; only to be defeated at first by See also:Garibaldi. But, after receiving reinforcements, he prosecuted the war successfully, and made his entry into Rome on the 3rd of July; while, in the See also:early part of May an Austrian army advanced into the See also:north of the papal states. On the 14th of July Oudinot proclaimed the restoration of the pontifical dominion; and, three days later, Pius IX. issued a manifesto entrusting the government to a commission appointed by himself. On the 12th of April 185o Pius returned to Rome, supported by foreign arms, embittered, and hostile henceforward to every form of political liberalism or national sentiment. In Gaeta he had mentally cut himself loose from all ideas of progress, and had thrown himself into the arms of the Jesuits. His subsequent policy was stamped by reaction. Whether it might have been possible to avoid the See also:catastrophe of 187o is a difficult question.

But there can be no question whatever that the policy which Pius now inaugurated, of restoring the old pre-revolutionary conditions, sealed the See also:

fate of the temporal dominion of the papacy. He made no attempt to regain the estranged affections of the populace, and took no measures to liberate himself and his subjects from the See also:incubus of the last few years. He even sought to exact vengeance for the events of that period: the state officials, who had compromised themselves, lost their offices; and all grants in aid were forfeited if the recipients were discovered by the secret commissions (consigli di censure) to have taken part in the revolutionary movement. The tribunals extorted declarations on the part of witnesses by flogging, deprivation of See also:food, and like methods of See also:torture. In many cases the death See also:sentence was executed at their instance, though the See also:guilt of the accused was never established. The system of precautionary See also:arrest, as it was termed, rendered it possible for any man to be thrown into See also:prison, without trial and without See also:verdict, simply on the ground that he See also:lay under suspicion of plotting against the government. The priests, who usurped the judicial See also:function, displayed such See also:cruelty on several occasions that See also:officers of the Austrian army were compelled to See also:record a protest. The consequence of these methods was that every victim—innocent or guilty—ranked as a See also:martyr in the estimation of his See also:fellow-citizens. A subsidiary result was the revival of See also:brigandage, which found a suspicious degree of support among the people. Corruption was rampant among the officials; the See also:police were accused of illicit bargaining with criminals; and nothing but contempt was entertained for the papal army, which was recruited from the dregs of humanity. To this was added a disastrous financial administration, under which the efficiency and credit of the See also:country sank to appalling depths. The system of See also:taxation was calculated with a view to relieving the Church and the clergy, and imposing the main See also:burden upon the laity.

In this See also:

department the family of Cardinal Antonelli seems to have played a fatal part. The secretary of state was born in humble circumstances: when he died he left a fortune of more than 1oo,00o,000 lire, to which a daughter succeeded in establishing her claim. His brother Felippo was See also:president of the Roman See also:Bank, and his brother Luigi the head of the See also:Annona—an office created to regulate the import of grain. The pope himself had neither the will nor the power to See also:institute searching financial reforms; possibly, also, he was ignorant of the facts. The mismanagement which obtained in the papal dominions could not escape the observation of the other powers. As early as the Congress of Paris in 1856 the English See also:ambassador, See also:Lord See also:Clarendon, had directed an annihilating criticism against the government of the pontiff; and a convincing See also:proof of the See also:justice of his verdict was given by Pius himself, in his treatment of the famous See also:Mortara See also:case. A Jewish boy of this name had been torn from his parents in Rome and the rite of See also:baptism performed on him without their knowledge or consent. The pope flatly refused to restore the " See also:Christian " to his Jewish parents, and turned a See also:deaf See also:ear both to the protest of public See also:opinion and the diplomatic representations of France and England. The sequel to this mode of government was that the growing embitterment of the subjects of the Church came to be sympathized with outside the See also:bounds of Italy, and the question whether the secular authority of the papacy could be allowed to continue became a much-debated problem. Even the expression of the doubt was symptomatic. In 18J9 appeared an See also:anonymous brochure, Le Pape et le congres, composed by Laguerronniere, the friend of Napoleon III., in which it was proposed to ensure the pope " un revenu considerable " and the city of Rome, but to relieve him of a political task to which he was not competent. In 1861 another anonymous pamphlet, See also:Pro causa italica ad episcopos catliolicos, was published in Florence, advocating the ecclesiastico- political See also:programme of See also:Cavour; and the pope was horrified when he discovered that it came from the pen of See also:Passaglia, the professor of dogmatic theology.

In spite of all, the national See also:

idea gained strength in Italy, and the movement towards unity found power- ful champions in King See also:Victor See also:Emmanuel of Sardinia and his great statesman Cavour. Free See also:scope was given when the under- See also:standing between the two powers protecting the papal stateFrance and Austria—broke down. So soon as Napoleon an( Cavour had come to an agreement war ensued, France am Sardinia being ranged against Austria (1859). The result wa; that Austria lost the greater part of her Italian possessions, See also:whip the pope also forfeited two-thirds of his dominions. By the war o. 1866, in which Italy fought on the Prussian side, Victor Emmanue, gained Venice in addition; so that the States of the Church nom formed the last remaining obstacle to complete national unity In September 1864, France—who had been the protectress o: these states since 1849—had concluded a treaty with Victo] Emmanuel, undertaking to withdraw her See also:garrison from Rome it two years time; while, on his part, the king agreed to abstair from any attack on the papal dominions, and to See also:guarantee the safety of the pope and the patrimonium Petri. The empero] Napoleon had, in point of fact, recalled his troops in 1866; but in 1867, when Garibaldi crossed the frontiers of the papal state at the head of his volunteers, he declared the treaty violated and again threw his regiments into Rome. Three years later the time came when he could employ his arms more advantageously elsewhere, and after the outbreak of the war with Germany Rome was evacuated. The news that the French Empire had fallen produced an See also:electrical effect in Italy: the Italian parliament called on the king to occupy Rome; on the 8th of September Victor Emmanuel crossed the See also:borders; and on the 20th of September the See also:green-white-and-red of the tricolour floated over the Capitol. The protests of Pius IX. remained unheeded, and his attempts to secure another foreign intervention met with no success. On the 2nd of October Victor Emmanuel instituted a See also:plebiscite in Rome and the possessions of the Church to decide the question of See also:annexation. The result of the See also:suffrage was that 153,681 votes were given in favour of union with Italy, and 1507 against the proposed See also:incorporation: that is to say only the See also:direct dependants of the Vatican were opposed to the change.

The papal state was now merged in the kingdom of Italy, which proceeded to define its diplomatic relations with the Holy See by the law of the 13th of May 1871 (see ITALY: History). , In his capacity as head of the Church, Pius IX. adhered to the principles of the Ultramontanist party, and contributed materially to the victory of that cause. The political reaction which followed the revolutionary era in most quarters of Europe offered a favourite See also:

soil for his efforts; and in several countries he found it possible to regulate the relations between Church and state from the standpoint of the curia. In 1851 he concluded a concordat with See also:Queen See also:Isabella II. of Spain, proclaiming Roman Catholicism the sole religion of the Spanish people, to the exclusion of every other creed (art. 1); and we find the same See also:provision in another concordat with the See also:South See also:American republic of See also:Ecuador (1862). A third concordat, negotiated with the emperor See also:Francis Joseph I. of Austria (1855), entrusted the supervision of See also:schools and the censorship of literature to the clergy, recognized the canon law, and repealed all secular legislation conflicting with it. France came into See also:line with the wishes of the pope in every respect, as Napoleon needed clerical support in his political designs. Even in Germany he found no resistance; on the contrary, he was able to secure advantageous compacts from individual states (See also:Hesse, 1854; See also:Wurttemberg, 1857). In fact, the growing tendency to romanize Catholicism—to bring it, that is to say, into close connexion with Rome, and to a state of dependency on the guidance and instructions of the curia—made See also:special progress in Germany. Among the most important acts of Pius IX. must be counted his proclamation of the See also:dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, by the bull See also:Ine fabilis See also:Deus, on the 8th of December 1854. In this bull the preservation of Mary from every stain of hereditary See also:sin, in the first moment of her conception, was declared to be a divinely revealed truth, which consequently demanded universal acceptance (see IMMACULATE CONCEPTION). By this means a view, which till then had been no more than a pious belief, was elevated into a dogma to be held de fide; though See also:grave doubts on the subject had always been entertained, even in the midst of the Church itself.

For the inner life of that Church this solution of the controversy was of great significance, and created a desire for further dogmatic decisions on the Virgin Mary—her resurrection and See also:

ascension. But the See also:procedure of Pius IX. proved of far-reaching importance from another point of view. True, he had taken the opinion of the bishops on the subject, and had received the assent of a large majority; none the less, the verdict was pronounced by himself alone, not by an ecumenical council. Thus, by arrogating the function formerly exercised by the ecumenical council, he virtually laid claim to the See also:infallibility which had always been regarded as inherent only in the doctrinal pronouncements of such a council: in other words, he availed himself of a See also:privilege not accorded to him till the 18th of July 1870. Though the Marian dogma of 1854 received, with very few exceptions, an enthusiastic welcome in Roman Catholic circles, another measure of the pope, ten years later, excited a painful sensation even among the orthodox members of the Church. As reigning See also:sovereign of the papal states Pius IX. had passed through a " liberal period ": as head of the Church, he had never been liable to attacks of liberalism. Nevertheless, his return from See also:exile left its See also:mark on his spiritual administration. For from this period onwards he deliberately and stubbornly set his See also:face against the influence of modernism on ecclesiastical life; showed his displeasure at and distrust of the scientific theology and See also:philosophy which marked a moderate advance (See also:Gunther, See also:Frohschammer and Dellinger); and, entrenched in the stronghold of See also:medieval ideals, combated the transformations of the new order of society, and the changes in the relationship between Church and state, which obtained in most countries of Europe since the French Revolution. After long and careful consultation, the adverse criticisms which he had expressed on various occasions were published on the 8th of December 1864, together with the encyclical Quanta cura, under the title See also:Syllabus complectens praecipuos nostrae aetatis errores (see SYLLABUS). In this Pius claimed for the Church the control of all culture and all See also:science, and of the whole educational system. He rejected the See also:liberty of faith, conscience and See also:worship enjoyed by other See also:creeds; and bade an easy farewell to the idea of tolerance. He claimed the complete independence of the Church from state control; upheld the See also:necessity of a continuance of the temporal power of the Roman See; and finally, in the last clause, declared that " the pontiff neither can be nor ought to be reconciled with progress, liberalism and See also:modern See also:civilization." The publication of this syllabus created a profound impression: for it declared war on modern society, and committed the papacy to the principles of See also:Ultramontanism (q.v.).

But, as any attempt to translate its precepts into practice would See also:

entail a disastrous conflict with the existing regime as established by law, Roman Catholic circles have frequently shown a tendency to belittle the significance of the manifesto and to deny that its rules are absolutely binding. But these well-meant explanations, however comprehensible, are refuted by the unequivocal pronouncements of Pius IX., Leo XIII., and many recognized ecclesiastical authorities—e.g. Cardinal See also:Manning, archbishop of See also:Westminster, who described the syllabus as an See also:emanation from the highest doctrinal authority in the Church. The See also:zenith of Pius's pontificate was attained on the 18th of July 1870 when the Vatican council proclaimed the infallibility of the pope and the universality of his episcopate, thus elevating him to a See also:pinnacle which none of his predecessors had reached and at the same time fulfilling his dearest wish. That, personally, he laid great stress on the acceptance of the dogma, was a fact which he did not attempt to conceal during the long preliminary deliberations of the council; and his attitude was a not inconsiderable See also:factor in determining its final resolutions. But the loss of the papal states, immediately afterwards, was a See also:blow from which he never recovered. Whenever he brought himself to speak of the subject—and it was not rarely—he repeated his protest in the bitterest terms, and, to the end of his days, refused to be reconciled with the " sacrilegious " king of Italy. When, in Germany, the situation created by the Vatican council led to the outbreak of the Kulturkampf, Pius IX. failed to display the tact peculiarto his successor. For, in the encyclical Quod numquam (lam' 5, 1875), he took the rash step of declaring invalid the Prussian laws regulating the relationship between Church and state—the only result being that the See also:feud was still further embittered. In these later years the dark days of his " captivity " were amply compensated bythe proofs of reverence displayed by Roman Catholic See also:Christianity, which accorded him magnificent ovations as his period of See also:jubilee began to fall due. The twenty-fifth anniversary of his pontificate was celebrated with great splendour on the 16th of June 1871; for he was the first pope who had thus reached the traditional " years of Peter." In 1872 his 8oth birthday gave occasion for new demonstrations; and 1875 was a so-called " year of jubilee." Finally, in 1877, the fifty years of his priesthood were completed: an event which brought him innumerable expressions of See also:loyalty and led to a great manifestation of devotion to the Holy See from all the Roman Catholic See also:world. On the 7th of February 1878 Pius IX. died.

His successor was Leo XIII.

End of Article: PIUS

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