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See also: BERTHIER, See also:- LOUIS
- LOUIS (804–876)
- LOUIS (893–911)
- LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
- LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian
LOUIS See also:ALEXANDRE , See also:prince of See also:Neuchatel (1753–1815), See also:marshal of See also:France and See also:chief of the See also:staff under See also:Napoleon I., was See also:born at See also:Versailles on the loth of See also:February 1753. As a boy he was instructed in the military See also:art by his See also:father, an officer of the See also:Corps de genie, and at the See also:age of seventeen he entered the See also:army, serving successively in the staff, the See also:engineers and the prince de Lambesq's dragoons. In 178o he went to See also:North See also:America with See also:Rochambeau, and on his return, having attained the See also:rank of See also:colonel, he was employed in various staff posts and in a military See also:mission to See also:Prussia. During the Revolution, as chief of staff of the Versailles See also:national guard, he protected the aunts of Louis XVI. from popular violence, and aided their See also:- ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli
escape (1791). In the See also:war of 1792 he was at once made chief of staff to Marshal Liickner, and he See also:bore a distinguished See also:part in the See also:Argonne See also:campaign of See also:Dumouriez and See also:Kellermann. He served with See also:great See also:credit in the Vendean War of 1793–95, and was in the next See also:year made a See also:general of See also:division and' chief of staff (See also:Major-General) to the army of See also:Italy, which See also:Bonaparte had recently been appointed to command. His See also:power of See also:work, accuracy and See also:quick comprehension, combined with his See also:long and varied experience and his See also:complete mastery of detail, made him the ideal chief of staff to a great soldier; and in this capacity he was Napoleon's most valued assistant for the See also:rest of his career. He accompanied Napoleon throughout the brilliant campaign of 1796, and was See also:left in See also:charge of the army after the See also:peace of Campo Formio. In this See also:post he organized the See also:Roman See also:republic (1798), after which he joined his chief in See also:Egypt, serving there until Napoleon's return. He assisted in the coup d'etat of 18th See also:Brumaire, afterwards becoming See also:minister of war for
a See also:- TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
- TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
- TIME, STANDARD
time. In the campaign of See also:Marengo he was the nominal See also:head of the Army of Reserve, but the first See also:consul accompanied the army and Berthicr acted in reality, as always, as chief of staff to Napoleon. At the See also:close of the campaign he was employed in See also:civil and See also:diplomatic business. When Napoleon became See also: emperor, Berthier waS at once made a marshal of the See also:empire. He took part in the See also:campaigns of See also:Austerlitz, See also:Jena and See also:Friedland, and was created See also:duke of Valengin in 18o6, See also:sovereign prince of Neuchatel in the same year and See also:vice-See also:- CONSTABLE (0. Fr. connestable, Fr. connetable, Med. Lat. comestabilis, conestabilis, constabularius, from the Lat. comes stabuli, count of the stable)
- CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD (1774-1827)
- CONSTABLE, HENRY (1562-1613)
- CONSTABLE, JOHN (1776-1837)
- CONSTABLE, SIR MARMADUKE (c. 1455-1518)
constable of the empire in 1807. In 18o8 he served in the See also:Peninsula, and in 1809 in the See also:Austrian War, after which he was given the See also:title of prince of See also:Wagram. Berthier married a niece of the See also:- KING
- KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
- KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
- KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
- KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
- KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
- KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
- KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
- KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
- KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
- KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
- KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)
king of See also:Bavaria. He was with Napoleon in See also:Russia in 1812, See also:Germany in 1813, and France in 1814, fulfilling, till the fall of the empire, the functions of " major-general " of the Grande Armee. He abandoned Napoleon to make his peace with Louis XVIII. in 1814, and accompanied the king in his See also:solemn entry into See also:Paris. During Napoleon's captivity in See also:Elba, Berthier, whom he informed of his projects, was much perplexed as to his future course, and, being unwilling to commit himself, See also:fell under the suspicion both of his old See also:leader and of Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return he withdrew to See also:Bamberg, where he died on the ist of See also:June 1815. The manner of his See also:death is uncertain; according to some accounts he was assassinated by members of a See also:secret society, others say that, maddened by the sight of See also:Russian troops marching to invade France, he threw himself from his window and was killed. Berthier was not a great See also:commander. When he was in temporary command in 1809 the See also:French army in Bavaria underwent a See also:series of reverses. Whatever merit as a general he may have possessed was completely overshadowed by the See also:genius of his See also:master. But his title to fame is that he understood and carried out that master's directions to the minutest detail.
' . BERTHOLLET, See also: CLAUDE LOUIS (1748-1822), French chemist, was born at Talloire, near See also:Annecy in See also:Savoy, on the gth of See also:December 1748. He studied first at See also:Chambery and afterwards at See also:Turin, where he graduated in See also:medicine. Settling in Paris in 1712, he became the private physician of See also:- PHILIP
- PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
- PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
- PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
- PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)
Philip, duke of See also:- ORLEANS
- ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
- ORLEANS, DUKES OF
- ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
- ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
- ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
- ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
- ORLEANS, LOUIS
- ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
- ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
- ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
- ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
- ORLEANS, PHILIP I
- ORLEANS, PHILIP II
Orleans, and by his chemical work soon gained so high a reputation that in 1780 he was admitted into the See also:Academy of Sciences. In 1785 he declared himself an adherent of the Lavoisierian school, though he did not accept See also:Lavoisier's view of See also:oxygen as the only and universal acidifying principle, and he took part in the reform in chemical nomenclature carried out by Lavoisier and his associates in 1787. Among the substances cf which he investigated the See also:composition were See also:ammonia, sulphuretted See also:hydrogen and prussic See also:acid, and his experiments on See also:chlorine, which he regarded, not as an See also:element, but as oxygenated muriatic (oxymuriatic) acid, led him to propose at as a See also:bleaching See also:agent in 1785. He also prepared See also:potassium chlorate and attempted to use it in the manufacture of See also:gunpowder as a substitute for See also:saltpetre. When, at the beginning of the French Revolution, the deficiency in the See also:supply of saltpetre became a serious See also:matter, he was placed at the head of the See also:commission entrusted with the development of its See also:production in French territory, and another commission on which he served had for its See also:object the improvement of the methods of See also:iron manufacture. He was also a member in 1794 of the See also:committee on See also:agriculture and the arts, and technical See also:science was further indebted to him for a systematic exposition of the principles of dyeing—Elemens de l' art de la teinlure, 1791, of which he published a second edition in 1809, in association with his son, A. B. Berthollet (1783-1811). After 1794 he was teacher of See also: chemistry in the See also:polytechnic and normal See also:schools of Paris, and in 1795 he took an active part in remodelling the Academy as the Institut National. In the following year he and Gaspard See also:Monge were chosen chiefs of a commission charged with the task of selecting in Italy the choicest specimens of See also:ancient and See also:modern art for the national galleries of Paris; and in 1798 he was one of the See also:band of scientific men who accompanied Napoleon to Egypt, there forming themselves into the See also:Institute of Egypt on the See also:plan of the Institut National. On the fall of the See also:Directory he was made a senator and See also:grand officer of the See also:Legion of See also:Honour; under the empire he became a See also:count; and after the
restoration of the Bourbons he took his seat as a peer. In the later years of his See also:life he had at See also:Arcueil, where he died on the 6th of See also:November 1822, a well-equipped laboratory, which became a centre frequented by some of the most distinguished scientific men of the time, their proceedings being published in three volumes, between 1807 and 1817, as the Memoires de la societe d'Arcueil. Berthollet's most remarkable contribution to chemistry was his Essai de statique chimique (1803), the first systematic See also:attempt to grapple with the problems of chemical physics. His doctrines did not meet with general approval among his contemporaries, partly perhaps because he pushed them too far, as for instance in holding that two elements might combine in constantly varying proportions, a view which gave rise to a long dispute with L. J. See also:Proust; but his speculations, in particular his insistence on the See also:influence of the relative masses of the acting substances in chemical reactions, have exercised a dominating influence on the modern developments of the theory of chemical See also:affinity, of which, far more than T. O. See also:Bergman, whom he controverted, he must be regarded as the founder.
End of Article: BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE
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