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ULTRAMONTANISM (Lat. ultra, beyond, m...

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Originally appearing in Volume V27, Page 573 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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ULTRAMONTANISM (See also:Lat. ultra, beyond, monies, the mountains) , the name given to a certain school of See also:opinion in the See also:Roman See also:Catholic See also:Church. The expression ultramontane was originally no more than a See also:term of locality, characterizing the persons so described as living—or derived from—" beyond the mountains." The " mountains " in this See also:case are the See also:Alps,so that, from the See also:Italian standpoint, Germans and See also:French for instance were " ultramontane." In this sense the word was applied in the later See also:middle ages to the Germans studying at Italian See also:universities and—to take a particular example—to the French cardinals at the See also:election of See also:Clement V. (5305). See also:North of the Alps, however, the term seems never to have been restricted to the sense implying locality; for from the very beginning we find it used as a party appellation to describe those who looked " beyond the mountains " in See also:order to obtain a See also:lead from See also:Rome, who represented the papal point of view and supported the papal policy. Thus, as See also:early as the zlth See also:century, the partisans of See also:Gregory VII. were styled ultramontanes, and from the 15th century onwards the same name was given to the opponents of the Gallican See also:movement in See also:France. It was not until the path century that "ultramontane" and " ultramontanism " came into See also:general use as broad designations covering the characteristics of particular personalities, See also:measures and phenomena within the Roman Catholic Church. At the See also:present See also:time they are applied to a tendency representing a definite See also:form of Catholicism. within that Church; and this tendency, in spite of the individual forms it has assumed in different countries, everywhere displays the same essential features and pursues the same ends. It follows, to be sure, from the very nature of Ultramontanism, and from the important position to which it has attained, that the See also:official See also:organs of the Church and all the See also:people interested in the continuance of the actual See also:state of affairs deny that it exists at all as an See also:independent tendency, and seek to identify it with any proper See also:interpretation of Roman Catholicism. Numerous Catholics, on the other See also:hand, well qualified to form a See also:judgment, themselves protest against this obliteration of the dividing See also:line. It is indisputably legitimate to speak of Ultramontanism as a distinct policy, but it is very difficult to define its essential See also:character. For, true to its nature, it has itself See also:drawn up no See also:complete See also:pro-gramme of its See also:objects, and, in addition to its avowed aims, its subsidiary effects claim See also:attention. There is something See also:chameleon-like in its appearances; its genuine views are kept in the background from See also:tactical considerations, and first one aspect, then another, comes into prominence.

It is evident, therefore, that the See also:

request for a See also:definition of Ultramontanism cannot be answered with a concise See also:formula, but that the varied character of its manifestations necessitates a more detailed examination of its See also:peculiar objects. The indications given by the See also:late See also:Franz Xaver Kraus—himself a Catholic—may well serve for a See also:guide (Spectator, ep. a). He classes as Ultramontane: (1) Whoever places the See also:idea of the Church above that of See also:religion; (2) whoever confounds the See also:pope with the Church; (3) whoever believes that the See also:kingdom of See also:Heaven is of this See also:world, and maintains, with See also:medieval Catholicism, that the See also:power of the keys, conferred on See also:Peter, includes See also:secular See also:jurisdiction over princes and nations; (4) whoever holds that religious conviction can be imposed by material force, or may legitimately be crushed by it; (5) whoever is always ready to See also:sacrifice a clear See also:injunction of his own See also:conscience to the claims of an See also:alien authority. The first and fundamental characteristic of Ultramontanism is its championship of a logical carrying out of the so-called " papalistic See also:system," the concentration, that is, of all ecclesias-. tical power in the See also:person of the Roman- See also:bishop. This tendency among occupants of the Roman see to exalt themselves above other bishops, and to usurp the See also:part of a See also:superior authority as compared with them, may be traced even in antiquity. No later than the end of the and century Bishop See also:Victor made an See also:attempt to establish this position during the discussions regarding the date of the See also:Easter festival. But he met with a See also:sharp rebuff, and Bishop See also:Stephen fared no better when, in the middle of the 3rd century, he came into collision with See also:Cyprian of See also:Carthage and Firmilian of Caesarea in the dispute concerning heretical See also:baptism. How the Roman bishopric See also:rose in status till it became the papacy, how the individual popes—in spite of these and similar repulses—advanced steadily on their path, how they succeeded in See also:founding their primacy within the Church, and in re-establishing and maintaining that primacy notwithstanding severe defeats and See also:long periods in which their See also:prestige sank to the vanishing point, is told elsewhere (see PAPACY). A characteristic peculiarity of the See also:process is that the claims of the Roman see were always in advance of the actual facts and always encountered opposition; though there were many periods—at the height of the middle ages, for instance—when the voices raised in protest were only timid and hesitating. To the curial system, so evolved, and continually fortifying its position in the domains of See also:theology, ecclesiastical See also:law and politics, the episcopal system stands in diametrical opposition. This system admits that the pope represents the unity of the Church, and acknowledges his primacy, but only in the sense that he is pilaus inter pares; while at the same time it claims on behalf of the bishops that, in virtue of the divine See also:ordinance, they possess an inalienable right to a See also:share in the See also:government of the Church (see See also:EPISCOPACY). This theory of the See also:independence of the episcopate with regard to the Roman bishop was first propounded by Cyprian, in his See also:treatise De unitate ecclesiae.

In the 15th century it received its classical expression in the resolutions of the ecumenical See also:

council at See also:Constance; its principles were See also:developed and amplified by See also:Gallicanism, and, finally, in the 18th century, was restored in a modernized form by "Febronius" (Nikolaus von See also:Hontheim, q.v.) and in the Punctation of See also:Ems (see FEBR0NIANIsM). The struggle between these two systems continued well into the 19th century; and, though episcopalism was not infrequently proscribed by the See also:curia, it still survived, and till the See also:year 1870 could boast that no ecumenical council had ventured to condemn it. This was done for the first time, in 187o, at the Vatican Council (q.v.), whose decrees, recognizing the universal episcopate and the See also:infallibility of the pope, marked the See also:triumph of that ultramontane See also:doctrine by which they had been long anticipated. In 1865 See also:Dollinger wrote: " The Ultramontane view can be summarized in a single, concise, and luminous proposition; but out of this proposition are evolved a doctrine and a view that embrace not merely religion and the Church, but See also:science and the state, politics, morals and the social order—in a word, the whole intellectual See also:life of men and nations. The proposition runs: The pope is the supreme, the infallible, and consequently the See also:sole authority in all that concerns religion, the Church, and morality, and each of his utterances on these topics demands unconditional submission—See also:internal no less than See also:external." See also:History, since the Vatican Council, has shown this judgment to have been correct. The Roman Catholic Church, in all countries, has become more and more dependent on the Curia: the bishops have lost their autonomous See also:standing, and their position is little more than that of papal delegates, while all important questions are referred to Rome or settled by the nuncios. A second peculiarity of Ultramontanism is its confusion of religion with politics; it claims for the Roman Catholic Church the functions of a See also:political power, and asserts that it is the See also:duty of the secular state to carry out its instructions and wishes. Ultramontanism regards the state, not as a divinely established order but, like its See also:ancient prototype, as a profane institution and, for that See also:reason, not co-See also:ordinate with, but subordinate to the Church. Since the conditions of the See also:age no longer allow the pope to depose a temporal See also:sovereign, the See also:practical application of this conception of the relationship between the spiritual and temporal See also:powers has taken other forms, all of which, however, clearly show that the superiority of the Church over the state is assumed. This may be seen in the attitude of Ultramontanism towards secular law. It assumes that See also:God has conferred on the individual and on society certain rights and competences as inalienable possessions. This " natural law " ranks above all secular law, and all state legislation is binding only in so far as it is in See also:harmony with that law.

As to the provisions of this natural law, and the consequences they See also:

entail in individual cases, these can be decided only by the Church, i.e.the last resort, by the pope. This is to assert the principle of the invalidity of all legislation conflicting with ecclesiastical interests and rules. This was the attitude of See also:Innocent III. when he annulled the See also:English Magna Charta; of Innocent X. when he pronounced the treaty of See also:Westphalia null and void; of See also:Pius IX. when he condemned the See also:Austrian constitution (1868) and the ecclesiastical See also:laws of See also:Prussia so far as they affected the circumstances of the Roman Catholic Church (1875). Thus, too, even at the present time, the opinion is very clearly ex-pressed in Ultramontane quarters that, in the event of the state issuing laws contravening those of nature or of the Church, obedience must be refused. The attitude of Ultramontanism, for instance, towards the right claimed and exercised by the state to make laws concerning See also:marriage is wholly negative; for it recognizes no marriage laws except those of the Church, the Church alone being regarded as competent to decide what impediments are a See also:bar to marriage, and to exercise jurisdiction over such cases. Thus Ultramontanism disclaims any moral subjection to secular authority or law, and will recognize the state only in so far as it conforms its rules to those of the Church., An instance of this interference with the duties of the individual See also:citizen towards the state may be found in the fact that, till the year 1904, the Catholics of See also:Italy were prohibited by the pope from taking part in any See also:parliamentary election. Since Ultramontanism cannot See also:hope to realise its political ambitions unless it succeeds in controlling the intellectual and religious life of Catholic Christendom, it attempts to extend its See also:sphere of See also:influence in all directions over culture, science, See also:education, literature and the forms taken by devotion. This endeavour is the third See also:great characteristic of Ultramontanism. Wherever its operations can be traced, they are dominated by the conviction that all stirrings of independence must be re-pressed, and any advance beyond the See also:stage of immaturity and nonage checked at the outset. That science must be See also:left See also:free to determine See also:Ale aims of her investigation, to select and apply her own methods, and to publish the results of her researches without See also:restraint, is a postulate which Ultramontanism either cannot understand or treats with indifference, for it regards as See also:strange and incredible the fundamental law governing all scientific See also:research—that there is for it no higher aim than the See also:discovery of the truth. This See also:ignorance of the very nature of science leads to under-estimation of the elemental force which science possesses; for only thus can we explain the pertinacity with which Ultramontanism, even at the present See also:day, strives to subject her See also:work to its own censorship and See also:control. Nor are its criticisms limited to theology alone: its care extends to See also:philosophy, history and the natural sciences.

Even See also:

medicine has not escaped its vigilance, as is proved by the See also:prohibition of certain surgical operations. The development of these efforts may be easily traced from decisions of the See also:Congregation of the See also:Index and the See also:Holy. See also:Office in Rome. Ultramontanism, too, labours systematically to bring the whole educational organization under ecclesiastical supervision and guidance; and it manifests the greatest repugnance to allowing the future See also:priest to come into See also:touch with the See also:modern spirit. Hence the attempts to See also:train its growing manhood in clerically regulated boarding-See also:schools and to keep it shut out from the external world in clerical seminaries, even in places where there are universities. Again, it See also:works zealously to bring the elementary schools under the sway of the Church. Since it regards the training and instruction of childhood as inseparable, and holds that the former is essentially the work of the Church, it See also:con-tests the right of the state to compel parents to send their See also:children to the state schools and only to the state schools. In logical sequence to these tenets it seeks to See also:divorce the school from the state—a proceeding which it terms educational freedom, though the underlying See also:motive is to subordinate the school to the Church. In the domain of religion, Ultramontanism tends to See also:foster popular superstitions and to emphasize outward forms as the essence of religious life, for it can only maintain its dominion so long as the See also:common people remain at a See also:low spiritual level. If any one desires to appreciate the intellectual See also:plane— and the power—of this Ultramontane See also:habit of thought, he will find ample material in the performances of the notorious swindler See also:Leo Taxil under Leo XIII., and in the See also:acceptance of his blasphemous effusions by the highest ranks of the See also:clergy. In the See also:fourth See also:place, Ultramontanism is the embodiment of intolerance towards other See also:creeds. The general presupposition involved is that a See also:man cannot be saved except within the Catholic Church.

Since, however, on the one hand—in virtue of a theory advanced by Pius IX. against the See also:

emperor See also:William I.,of See also:Germany, in a See also:letter which has since become famous—every See also:Christian, whether he will or no, belongs to that Church by baptism, and is consequently pledged to obey her, and, on the other hand, since the state lies under the See also:obligation to place the " secular See also:arm " at her disposal whenever one of her members wishes to secede, the most far-reaching consequences result. In the past this principle led to the erection of the See also:Inquisition (q.v.) and, even at the present day, there exists in the Curia a See also:special congregation charged with its application (see CURIA See also:ROMANA). On the Roman Catholic See also:side the employment of compulsion against heretics has never been acknowledged as a blunder; and this method of silencing opposition has found champions in the bosom of the Church down to the most See also:recent years. But the development of modern culture has rendered these exploits of an unbridled fanaticism impossible, and no government would consent to enforce the once obligatory sentences of ecclesiastical courts. As a result of this situation, the Catholic condemnation of See also:heresy—though as stringent as ever in principle—has assumed less dangerous forms for the heretic. Nevertheless, it proved capable, even in the 19th century, of imposing onerous restrictions on the heterodox, and practical exemplifications of this hostile attitude persist to the present day. The embittering influence of Ultramontanism may be further traced in its attitude towards the baptism of non-Catholics, for it seeks to establish the See also:rule that baptism conferred by Protestants is invalid through defect of form or See also:matter, or even of intention, and that, consequently, the rite must be readministered, at least conditionally, to proselytes joining the Roman Church. Finally, ample See also:scope for the display of tolerance or intolerance—is found in the mixed marriages between Protestants and Catholics, which, as a result of the modern facilities for intercommunication and the consequent greater mobility of the See also:population, have shown a large increase during the last few decades—in Germany, for instance. Here, again, Ultramontanism has done much to aggravate the pernicious See also:feud between the two creeds, by exacting a promise before marriage from the Roman Catholic party that all the children shall be brought up as members of the Roman Catholic Church (see MARRIAGE: See also:Canon Law). A like result has been produced when, in response to Ultramontane agitation, interdicts have been placed on churchyards in which non-Catholics have found their last resting-place. Lastly, Ultrambntanism is the foe of the nationalization of Catholicism. This peculiarity is connected, though not identical, with the above-mentioned tendency towards the Romanization of, the Church.

Just as in See also:

Protestant countries there has often been an amalgamation of evangelical belief with See also:national feeling, to the great gain of both, Catholics demand that Catholicism shall enter into the sphere of their national interests, and that the activities of the Catholic Church should See also:rest on a national basis. These aspirations have been proclaimed with especial emphasis in France, in Germany (Reformkatholizismus) and in the See also:United States (Americanism; see See also:HECKER, I. T.) but are everywhere met with a See also:blank refusal from the Ultramontane side. For Ultramontanism fears that any infusion of a national See also:element into ecclesiastical life would entail the eventual independence of the people in question from papal control, and lead to developments opposed to its papalistic mode of thought. It endeavours, therefore, to undermine all aspirations of this nature and, its own tendency being essentially See also:international, strives to ensure that national sentiment and national interests shall not find over-zealous champions among the clergy. The relationship of Ultramontanism to Catholicism is a much-disputed problem. The Ultramontane, indeed, See also:main tains that there is no See also:justification for distinguishing between the two: but the motives underlying this attitude are obvious. For, by representing the See also:prosecution of its party-political objects as a championship of the Catholic Church, Ultramontanism seeks to acquire the support of the official organs of that Church, and the See also:good will of all circles interested in her welfare; while at the same time it strives to discredit any attempt at opposition by See also:branding it as an See also:assault on the orthodox faith. But, even within the See also:pale of the Roman Church, this See also:identification provokes emphatic dissent, and is repudiated by all who are shocked by the effects of a one-sided accentuation of political Catholicism en the inner life of the church, and are reluctant to see the priest playing the part of a political agitator. It was on these grounds that See also:Count May, in See also:January 1904, proposed in the chamber of the Bavarian Reichsrath that the clergy should be deprived of the See also:suffrage. In Germany, again, the last few years have witnessed a growing aversion from Ultramontanism on the part of those Catholics who cannot reconcile its tenets with their patriotic sentiments, and are disinclined to submit to a See also:limitation of their share in the intellectual life of the times, particularly in See also:art, science and literature. It may be admitted that, in many cases, the distinction between Ultramontanism and Catholicism cannot be clearly traced; and it is impossible to draw a sharp line of severance between the two, which could be absolutely valid under all circumstances and in relation to all questions.

For there are many almost imperceptible stages of transition from the one to the other; and, for all the See also:

principal contentions of Ultramontanism, analogies may be found in the past history of the Catholic Church. Thus, in the middle ages, we find extremely bold pronouncements with respect to the position of the papacy in the universal Church; while political Catholicism had its beginnings in antiquity and found very definite expression, for instance, in the See also:bull Unam sanctum of See also:Boniface VIII. Again, the attempt to subordinate all intellectual life to ecclesiastical control was a feature of the medieval Church, and the fundamental attitude of that Church towards heresy was fixed during the same See also:period. But since then much has been altered both in the Church and her secular environment. The state has become independent of the Church, legislates on its own sole authority, and has recognized as falling within its own proper sphere the civilizing agencies and social questions formerly reserved for the Church. Again, education, science, art and literature have been secularized: the See also:printing-See also:press carries knowledge into every See also:house, the number of illiterates diminishes from year to year in every civilized See also:country, and the clergy are no longer the exclusive propagators of culture, but merely one See also:factor among a See also:hundred others. Finally, the Roman Catholic Church has long forfeited the privileged position formerly accorded as her due. The days when she was the Christian Church are past: and now the civic rights of a man in a modern state are not curtailed, though he may neglect his duty to the Church or flatly refuse to acknowledge the existence of any such duty. The struggle for religious freedom has suffered no intermission since the beginning of the See also:Reformation; and the result is that to-day its recognition is considered one of the most See also:precious trophies won in the See also:evolution of modern See also:civilization; nor can these changes be reversed, for they stand in the closest connexion and See also:reciprocity one with another, and represent the fruits of centuries of co-operation on the part of the See also:European peoples. But Ultramontanism ignores this latest See also:page of history and treats it as non-existent, aspiring to the erection of a new order of society, similar to that which Rome created—or, at least, endeavoured to create—in the halcyon days of medievalism. For the justification of this enterprise, it is considered sufficient to point out that the several elements of its See also:programme once enjoyed validity within the Church. But Cyprian of Carthage said long ago, Consuetudo sine veritate vetustas erroris est; and the See also:bare fact of previous existence is no See also:argument for the re-introduction of obsolete and antiquated institutions and theories.

But, under the See also:

guise of a restoration on conservative lines, Ultramontanism—notwithstanding the totally different conditions which now obtain—girds itself to work for an ideal of religion and culture in See also:vogue during the middle ages, and at the same time holds itself justified in adopting the extreme point of view with respect to all questions which we have mentioned. Thus Ultramontanism is not to be conceived as a theological movement, but as the programme of a party whose principles are in fundamental opposition to modern culture, modern education, modern tolerance and the modern state—a party which seeks to carry out its See also:campaign against the society of to-day, not by bridging the gulf betwixt creed and creed, but by widening it, by awakening religious fanaticism, and by closing the way to a peaceful co-operation of Catholics and non-Catholics in the highest tasks of culture and human civilization. The hierophants of this Ultramontane system are to be found in the Society of Jesus (See See also:JESUITS). In fact, the terms jesuitical and ultramontane may, in numerous cases, be regarded as See also:equivalent. The origin of modern Ultramontanism is preceded and conditioned by the collapse of Catholicism in the period of the French Revolution. Pius VI. and Pius VII. were expelled from Rome, deprived of the papal states, and banished to France. In that country the Church almost completely lost her possessions; in Germany they were at least considerably cur-tailed; in both the hierarchical organization was shattered, while the Catholic laity surveyed the See also:catastrophe in complete passivity. But from this severe fall the Roman Church re-covered with See also:comparative readiness, and the upward movement is contemporaneous with the rise of Ultramontanism. The See also:birth of that system, however, cannot be fixed as a definite event by the day and the See also:hour; nor was it created by any single See also:personality. Rather it was the product of the first See also:post-revolutionary See also:generation. Neither is it merely fortuitous that the reaction proceeded from France itself. For in no other country had hostility to religion attained such a See also:pitch or assumed such See also:grotesque forms; and consequently in no other country did the yearning for religion See also:manifest itself so unequivocally, when See also:bitter experience had demonstrated the See also:necessity of a return to law and order.

And in the other states of See also:

Europe there existed, more or less, a similar See also:desire for See also:peace and an equal dread of a fresh out-break of revolutionary violence. In contrast to the struggle for an ideal freedom, which was at first hailed with tempestuous delight only to reveal itself as a dangerous tyranny, men became conscious of the need for a firmly established authority in the reconstruction of society. After the violent upheaval in the political world during the last few decades, the existent—as such—increased in value, and the high estimation in which the old regime was now held led to a policy of restoration. At the same time, the repression of See also:idealism and sentiment during the period of " See also:illumination " was amply revenged, and the barren age of reason gave place to Romanticism. These tendencies in contemporary opinion favoured the renovation of the Roman Catholic Church. But the papacy signalized its reinstation by restoring the Society of Jesus (1814) and re-establishing the index. Even before this, the earliest germs can be traced back into the revolutionary period itself—the movement characterized above had begun working in France on the same lines; and, as it showed• great zeal for the increase of the papal authority, it received the support of the Curia. True, the principles of See also:Bonald, See also:Lemaitre, See also:Lamennais and See also:Lacordaire, were not carried through in the French Church without opposition; but, about the year 185o, they had become predominant there. In Germany Ultramontanism had to contend with great difficulties; for here ecclesiastical affairs were not in so desperate A. case that the most drastic remedies possessed the most powerful attraction; while, in addition, the clergy were too highly educated to be willing to renounce all scientific work. The result was that a See also:series of violent struggles took place between the old Catholicism and the new Ultramontane See also:species (See also:Hermes, See also:Baader, Dellinger, &c.). But even here Ultramontanism gained ground and derived inestimable assistance from the blunders of government after government—See also:witness the conflict of the Prussian See also:administration with See also:Archbishop Droste-Vischering (q.v.) of See also:Cologne, 1837. Additional impetus was also See also:lent by the revolution of 1848.

The growth of the Jesuitical influence at Rome—more especially after the return of Pius IX. from See also:

exile—implied a more definite See also:protection of Ultramontanism by the papacy. The See also:proclamation of the See also:dogma of the immaculate conception in 1854 was more than the decision of an old and vexed theological problem; it was an See also:act of conformity to a pietistic type especially represented by the Jesuits. The See also:Syllabus of 1864, however, carried with it a recognition of the Ultramontane condemnation of all modern culture (see the articles Plus IX., and SYLLABUS). Finally, in the Vatican Council, the Jesuits saw another of their favourite theories—that of papal infallibility—elevated to the status of a dogma of the Church (see VATICAN COUNCIL and INFALLIBILITY). Ultramontanism, again, though essentially averse from all forms of progress, had displayed great dexterity in utilizing the opportunities presented to it by modern life. Where it appeared advisable, it has formed itself into a political party, as for instance, the Centre Party in Germany. It has shown extreme activity in the creation of a press devoted to its interests, and has consolidated its influence by the formation of an extensive See also:league-system. In the episcopacy it has numerous adherents; it has made progress in the universities, and most of the learned and theological reviews are conducted in its spirit. Whether the powerful position of this movement within the Roman Catholic Church be an See also:advantage for that Church itself cannot be discussed here. The See also:answer to the problem will mainly depend on the estimate which we form of the Society of Jesus and its whole activity. The outstanding event in the latest history of Ultramontanism is the separation between Church and state in France (1904), by which the See also:republic has endeavoured to break the influence of this party. Similarly, the See also:dissolution of the See also:German Reichstag in See also:December 1906 was a weapon directed against Ultramontanism; and, though the elections of 1907 failed to diminish the See also:numbers of the Centre, they rendered possible the formation of a See also:majority, in See also:face of which that system forfeited the influence it had previously possessed.

A collection of the further literature will be found in Benrath's See also:

article " Ultramontanism " in the Realencyclopadie fiir protestantische Theologie and Kirche (3rd ed., 1908, vol. xx. p. 213 seq.). Also, for the history of the rise of Ultramontanism in Germany, see C. Mirbt, See also:Die katholisch-theologische Fakultat zu See also:Marburg. See also:Bin Beitrag zur Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Kurhessen and See also:Nassau (Marburg, 1905). (C.

End of Article: ULTRAMONTANISM (Lat. ultra, beyond, monies, the mountains)

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