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MINIATURE
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MINIATURE . The word " miniature," derived from the Latin minium, red See also:lead, bas been technically employed, in the first instance, to describe a picture in an See also:ancient or See also:medieval See also:manuscript; the See also:simple decoration of the See also:early codices having been " miniated " or delineated with that pigment. The generally small See also:scale of the medieval pictures has led secondly to a pseudo-etymological confusion of the See also:term with " minuteness " and to its application to " paintings in little "; it is now used mainly in this sense, and is ordinarily applied to a See also:painting on a very small scale, usually a portrait, and by See also:analogy to anything on a very small scale. r. Miniatures in Ancient and Medieval See also:MSS.—The See also:part played by the miniature in the See also:scheme of the ornamentation of MSS., in the early centuries of the See also:Christian era and in the See also:middle ages, is dealt with in the See also:article on ILLUMINATED MSS. In the See also:present article will be discussed the development and changes which it underwent, in different ages and in different countries, both in its technical treatment and in its leading characteristics. The subject divides itself into two distinct portions, the classical and the medieval, between which there lies the See also:great separating space of the early middle ages, which affords but scanty material to connect them. When, however, we have advanced into the middle ages, we are no longer at a loss; and we can follow the later development of the miniature through all its changes in the various See also:schools of western See also:Europe down to its transition into the See also:modern picture. The importance of the study of the miniature has perhaps hardly received in the past the recognition which it merits. The See also:history of painting cannot be perfectly understood without a knowledge of the rise and progress of the See also:art of miniature-painting in MSS; and examples of the art still survive in an abundance which frescoes and paintings in the large cannot See also:rival. Modern methods of See also:photography have brought within the reach of the student material which in earlier generations was not accessible; and consequently a juster conception can be formed of the position which the miniature holds in the history of art than was possible before. The earliest examples that have descended to us are closely connected in See also:style and treatment with the pictorial art of the later See also:Roman classical See also:period. In fact they are separated from that period by only two or three centuries, and they still follow its traditions. The See also:oldest specimens of all are the See also:series of coloured drawings or miniatures cut from an illustrated MS. of the Iliad and now in the Ambrosian Library at See also:Milan, which there is See also:good See also:reason for placing as early as the 3rd See also:century. In these pictures there is a considerable variety in the quality of the See also:drawing, but there are many notable instances of See also:fine figure-drawing, quite classical in sentiment, showing that the earlier art still exercised its See also:influence. Such indications, too, of landscape as are to be found are of the classical type, not conventional in the sense of medieval conventionalism, but still attempting to follow nature, even if in an imperfect See also:fashion; just as in the Pompeian and other frescoes of the Roman See also:age. Of even greater value from an See also:artistic point of view are the miniatures of the Vatican MS. of See also:Virgil, known as the " Schedae Vaticanae," of the 4th century. They are in a more perfect See also:condition and on a larger scale than the Ambrosian fragments, and they therefore offer better opportunity for examining method and technique. " The drawing is quite classical in style, and the See also:idea is conveyed that the miniatures are See also:direct copies from an older series. The See also:colours are opaque: indeed, in all the miniatures of early MSS. the employment of See also:body See also:colour was universal. The method followed in placing the different scenes on the See also:page is highly instructive of the practice followed, as we may presume, by the artists of the early centuries. It seems that the background of the See also:scene was first painted in full, covering the whole See also:surface of the page; then, over this background were painted the larger figures and See also:objects; and over these again the smaller details in front of them were superimposed. Again, for the purpose of securing something like See also:perspective, an arrangement of See also:horizontal zones was adopted, the upper ones containing figures on a smaller scale than those below. It was reserved for the See also:Byzantine school to break away more decidedly from the natural presentment of things and to develop See also:convention. Yet in the best early examples of this school the classical sentiment still lingers, as the See also:relics of the miniatures of the Cottonian See also:Genesis, in the See also:British Museum, and the best of the miniatures of the See also:Vienna Dioscorides testify; and in the miniatures of the later Byzantine MSS., which were copied from earlier examples, the See also:reproduction of the See also:models is faithful. But on comparing the miniatures of the Byzantine school generally with their classical predecessors, one has a sense of having passed from the open See also:air into the See also:cloister. Under the See also:restraint of ecclesiastical domination Byzantine art became more and more stereotyped and conventional. The tendency grows to paint the flesh-tints in swarthy hues, to elongate and emaciate the limbs, and to stiffen the gait. Browns, See also:blue-greys and neutral tints are in favour. Here we first find the technical treatment of flesh-painting which afterwards became the See also:special practice of See also:Italian miniaturists, namely the laying on of the actual flesh-tints over a ground of See also:olive, See also:green or other dark See also:hue. Landscape, such as it was, soon became quite conventional, setting the example for that remarkable See also:absence of the true See also:representation of nature which is such a striking attribute of the miniatures of the middle ages. And yet, while the ascetic treatment of the miniatures obtained so strongly in Byzantine art, at the same See also:time the See also:Oriental sense of splendour shows itself in the brilliancy of much of the colouring and in the lavish employment of See also:gold. In the miniatures of Byzantine- MSS. are first seen those backgrounds of See also:bright gold which afterwards appear in such profusion in the productions of every western school of painting. The influence of Byzantine art on that of medieval See also:Italy is obvious. The early mosaics in the churches of Italy, such as those at See also:Ravenna and See also:Venice, also afford examples of the dominating Byzantine influence. But the early middle ages provide but few landmarks to See also:guide the student; and it is only when he emerges into the See also:lath century, with its frescoes and miniatures still bearing the impress of the Byzantine tradition, that he can be satisfied that the connexion has always existed during the intervening centuries. When we turn to the farther-See also:west of Europe, there also we find under the Carolingian monarchs a school of painting obviously derived from classical models, chiefly of the Byzantine type, but whether derived directly from the See also:East, or, what ismore probable, transmitted through Italian channels, must remain doubtful. The See also:interest of that school for our present purpose is that it was the See also:parent of the later miniature-painting in the countries of the West. For in the native schools of those countries decoration only was the leading See also:motive. In the MSS. of the Merovingian period, in the school which connected See also:Frankland and See also:northern Italy, and which is known as Lombardic or Franco-Lombardic, in the MSS. of See also:Spain, in the productions of the See also:Celtic school of our own islands, figure-drawing was scarcely known, and where it was practised it was of a barbarous See also:character, serving rather as a feature of decoration than as a representation of the human See also:form. Hence in those native schools the miniature, in its true sense of a picture, may be regarded as non-existent. From these native schools we exclude the Anglo-Saxon school, See also:developed especially at See also:Canterbury and See also:Winchester, which probably derived its characteristic See also:free-See also:hand drawing from classical Roman models, scarcely influenced by the Byzantine See also:element. The highest qualities of the miniatures of the loth and See also:firth centuries of this school See also:lie in fine outline drawing, which had a lasting influence on the See also:English miniature of the later centuries. But the See also:southern Anglo-Saxon school rather stands apart from the See also:general See also:line of development of the western medieval miniature. How far it was affected by See also:Continental influence will be presently noticed. Turning to the productions of the Carolingian school, which owed its origin to the encouragement of See also:Charlemagne, it is seen that the miniature appears in two forms. First, there is the truly conventional miniature following the Byzantine See also:model, the subjects being generally the portraits of the Evangelists, or portraits of the emperors themselves: the figures stiff and formal; the pages brilliantly and often coarsely coloured and gilded, generally set in architectural surroundings of a fixed type, and devoid of landscape in the real sense of the word. On the other hand, there is also the miniature in which there is an See also:attempt at See also:illustration, as, for example, the depicting of scenes from See also:Bible history. Here there is more freedom; and we trace the debased classical style which copies Roman, as distinguished from Byzantine, models. The figure-drawing is sufficiently clumsy, but the type is Roman, or debased Roman, and the costumes are clearly derived from the same source. Here, too, there is a better attempt at landscape, which is not of the absolutely conventional deadness of the Carolingian-Byzantine type. But this second style of illustrative miniature appears only occasionally. The other was the characteristic miniature of the Carolingian school, and, accompanied as it was with profuse decoration in border and initial, it set the See also:pattern for the later Continental schools of the West. The influence which the Carolingian school exercised on the miniatures of the southern Anglo-Saxon artists shows itself in the extended use of body-colour and in the more elaborate employment of gold in the decoration. Such a MS. as the Benedictional of Aethelwold, See also:bishop of Winchester, 963 to 984, with its series of miniatures See also:drawn in the native style but painted in opaque See also:pigments, exhibits the influence of the See also:foreign art. But the actual drawing remained essentially See also:national, marked by its own treatment of the human figure and by the See also:peculiar disposition of the drapery with fluttering folds. Its See also:fault was over-refinement, tending to an affected exaggeration and disproportion of the limbs. With the See also:Norman See also:Conquest this remarkable native school passed away. The period immediately succeeding the Carolingian school in western Europe was one of extreme decadence in the miniatures of MSS. In the loth and rrth centuries they were See also:mere lifeless copies of earlier types. But with the awakening of art in the 12th century the decoration of MSS. received a powerful impulse. Although the artist of the time excels in the border and the initial, still in the miniature also there is vigorous drawing, with bold sweeping lines and careful study of the draperies. The artist now grows more practised in figure-drawing, and while there is still the tendency to repeat the same subjects in the same conventional manner, individual effort
produced in this century many miniatures of a very See also:noble character. The Norman Conquest had brought See also:England directly within the See also:fold of Continental art; and now began that grouping of the See also:French and the English and the Flemish schools, which, fostered by growing intercourse and moved by See also:common impulses, resulted in the magnificent productions of the illuminators of See also:north-western Europe from the latter part of the 12th century onwards. But of natural landscape there is nothing, unless rocks and trees of a stereotyped character can be so regarded. Hence the background of the miniature of the 12th and immediately succeeding centuries became the See also: Books in general exchanged their form from the large See also:folio to the See also:octavo and smaller sizes. There was a greater demand for books; and vellum was limited in quantity and had to go further. The See also:handwriting See also:grew smaller and lost the roundness of the 12th century. Contractions and abbreviations in the texts largely increased in number. Everywhere there is an effort to See also:save space. And so with the miniature. Figures were small, with delicate strokes in the features and with neat slim bodies and limbs. The backgrounds See also:blaze with colour and burnished gold; and delicate See also:diaper patterns of alternate gold and colour abound. Frequently, and especially in English MSS., the drawings are merely tinted or washed with transparent colours. In this century, too, the miniature invades the initial. Whereas in the earlier periods bold flowering scrolls are the fashion, now a little scene is introduced into the See also:blank spaces of the See also:letter. To compare the See also:work of the three schools, the drawing of the English miniature, at its best, is perhaps the most graceful; the French is the neatest and the most accurate; the Flemish, including that of western Germany, is less refined and in harder and stronger lines. As to colours, the English artist affects rather lighter tints than those of the other. schools: a partiality is to be observed for See also:light green, for See also:grey-blue, and for See also:lake. Tjie French artist loved deeper shades, especially ultra-marine. The See also:Fleming and the See also:German painted, as a See also:rule, in less pure colours and inclined to heaviness. A noticeable feature in French MSS. is the red or See also:copper-hued gold used in their illuminations, in strong contrast to the paler See also:metal of England and the Low Countries. It is remarkable how the art of the miniature throughout the 13th century maintains its high quality both in drawing and colour without any very striking See also:change. Throughout the century the Bible and the Psalter were in favour; and naturally the same subjects and the same scenes ran through the period and were repeated by artist after artist; and the very character of those sacred books would tend to restrain innovation. But towards the See also:close of the period such See also:secular See also:works as the romances were growing in popularity, and afforded a wider field for the invention of the illustrating artist. Therefore with the opening of the 14th century a palpable change of style supervenes. We pass to more flowing lines; not to the bold sweeping strokes and curves of the 12th century, but to a graceful, delicate, yielding style which produced the beautiful swaying figuresof the period. In fact the miniature now begins to free itself from the role of an integral member of the decorative scheme of See also:illumination and to develop into the picture, depending on its own artistic merit for the position it is!to hold in the future. This is shown by the more prominent place that the miniature now assumes, and by its growing See also:independence of the decorative border and initial. But, at the same time, while the miniature of the 14th century thus strives to dissociate itself from the See also:rest of the illuminated details of the MS., within itself it flourishes in decoration. Besides the greater See also:elasticity of the figure-drawing, there is a parallel development in the designs of the backgrounds. The diapers become more elaborate and more brilliant; the beauty of the burnished gold is enhanced by the stippled patterns which are frequently worked upon it; the See also:gothic canopies and other architectural features which it became the practice to introduce naturally followed the development of the See also:architecture of the period. In a word, the great expansion of artistic sentiment in decoration of the best type, which is so prominent in the higher work of the 14th century, is equally conspicuous in the illuminated miniature. In the early part of the century, English drawing is very graceful, the figures bending with a waving See also:movement which, if they were not so simple, would be an affectation. Both in the outline specimens, washed with transparent colour, and in the fully. painted examples, the best English work of this time is unsurpassed. French art still maintains its neat precision, the colours more vivid than those of England and the faces delicately indicated without much modelling. The productions of the Low Countries, still keeping to the heavier style of drawing, appear coarse beside the works of the other schools. Nor does German miniature art of this period hold a high position, being generally See also:mechanical and of a rustic character. As time advances the French miniature almost monopolizes the field, excelling in brilliancy of colouring, but losing much of its purity of drawing although the general See also:standard still remains high. The English school gradually retrogrades and, owing no doubt to See also:political causes and to the See also:wars with France, appears to have produced no work of much value. It is only towards the end of the century that there is a revival. This revival, which is referred to in the article on ILLUMINATED MSS., has been attributed, with some reason, to a connexion with the flourishing school of See also:Prague—a school which in the scheme of colouring suggests a southern influence—following on the See also:marriage of See also:Richard II. with See also:Anne of Bohemia in 1382. The new style of English miniature painting is distinguished by richnesspf colour, and by the careful modelling of the faces, which compares favourably with the slighter treatment by the contemporary French artists. Similar See also:attention to the features also marks the northern Flemish or Dutch school at this period and in the early 15th century; and it may therefore be regarded as an attribute of Germanic art as distinguished from the French style. The promise of the new development in English miniature painting, however, was not to be fulfilled. In the first See also:quarter of the 15th century, examples of great merit were produced, but at a standstill in drawing and fettered by medieval convention. The native art practically came to a close about the middle of the century, just when the better appreciation of nature was breaking down the old conventional representation of- landscape in See also:European art, and was transforming the miniature into the modern picture. Whatever miniature painting was to be produced in England after that time was to be the work of foreign artists or of artists imitating a foreign style. The condition of the See also:country during the Wars of the See also:Roses sufficiently accounts for the See also:abandonment of art. Thus the history of the miniature in the 15th century must be sought in the See also:manuscripts of the Continental schools. First we have to consider northern France and the Low Countries. As it passes out of the 14th and enters the 15th century, the miniature of both schools begins to exhibit greater freedom in See also:composition; and there is a further tendency to aim rather at general effect by the colouring than neatness in drawing. This was encouraged by the wider field opened to the miniaturist. Books of all kinds were illustrated, and sacred books, Bibles and Psalters and liturgical books, were no longer the See also:chief, if not the only, MSS. which were illuminated. And yet there was one class of MSS. which came into the greatest prominence and which was at the same time liturgical. This was the Horae, or See also:Hours of the Virgin, &c., devotional books for individual use, which were multiplied in vast See also:numbers and contained some of the finest work of the miniaturists. The decoration of these little volumes escaped in great measure from the conventional restraints which their religious character might have imposed. Futhermore, the demand for illuminated MSS. had by this time established a See also:regular See also:trade; and their See also:production was not confined, as formerly, to the cloister with its narrow and limited views. Early in the century the old conventional treatment of landscape still held its own; nor did the diapered and gilded back-ground pass out of use. Indeed, in some of the finest French specimens of the time the diapered patterns are more brilliant than ever. But natural scenery in the second quarter of the century asserts itself more decidedly, although with faults in perspective. It was not until another See also:generation had arisen that there was a true appreciation of the See also:horizon and of atmospheric effect. The miniatures of the French and Flemish schools run fairly parallel for a time, but after the middle of the century national characteristics become more marked and divergent. The French miniature began to deteriorate, though some very fine examples were produced by the more gifted artists of the school. The figure-drawing was more careless, and the painting tended to hardness without See also:depth, which the artist endeavoured to relieve by an excess of gilt shading. The close of the century brought with it the end of the French miniature; for the extravagant productions of the 16th century cannot be counted as worthy of consideration. The French miniature went down before the Flemish school, which in the latter part of the 15th century attained to its highest excellence. The Flemish miniature affected extreme softness and depth of colour; also an ever-increasing carefulness in the treatment of details, of the draperies, of the expression of the features: the Flemish type of the Virgin's See also:face, for ex-ample, with its full, high forehead, can never be mistaken. In the best Flemish miniatures of the period the artist succeeds in presenting a wonderful softness and glow of colour; nor did the high standard cease with the 15th century, for many excellent specimens still remain to attest the favour in which it was held for a few decades longer. In the foregoing remarks what has been said in regard to the careful treatment of details applies still more to the miniatures executed in See also:grisaille, in which the absence of colour invited an even stronger accentuation of that treatment. This is perhaps most observable in the grisaille miniatures of northern See also:Flanders, which often suggest, particularly in the strong angular lines of the. draperies, a connexion with the art of the See also:wood-engraver. The Flemish miniature did not, however, hold the favour of western Europe without a rival. That rival had arisen in the See also:south, and had come to perfection concurrently with the miniature of the Low Countries in the 15th century. This was the Italian miniature; and the history of its development now claims a brief notice. We return to the 13th century, where we suspended examination of the work of the school of the miniature painters of Italy; but we are not in a position, from lack of material, to follow so closely the development of the Italian miniature. Yet there is enough to show that it passed through the same stages as the miniatures of England and France and the Low Countries. Intercommunication between the countries of Europe was too well established for the See also:case to be otherwise. In Italian MSS. of the normal type the influence of Byzantine art is very See also:manifest during the 13th and 14th centuries. The old See also:system of painting the flesh tints upon olive green or some similar pigment, which is See also:left exposed on the lines of the features, thus obtaining a swarthy complexion,continued to be practised in a more or less modified form into the 15th century. As a rule, the pigments used are more opaque than those employed in the northern schools; and the artist trusted more to colour alone to obtain the desired effect than to the mixture of colour and gold which gave such brilliant results in the diapered patterns of France. The vivid See also:scarlet of the Italian miniaturists is peculiarly their own. The figure-drawing does not See also:bear comparison with the contemporary art of English and French MSS., the human form being often stunted and thick-set. In general, the Italian miniature, before its great expansion in the 14th century, is far behind the miniatures of the north. But with the 15th century, under the influence of the See also:Renaissance, it advanced into the front See also:rank and rivalled the best work of the Flemish school. The use of thicker pigments enabled the miniaturist to obtain the hard and polished surface so characteristic of his work, and to maintain sharpness of outline, without losing the depth and richness of colour which compare with the same qualities in the Flemish school. The Italian style was followed in the MSS. of See also:Provence in the 14th and 15th centuries. It had its effect, too, on the school of northern France, by which it was also influenced inv turn. In the MSS. of southern Germany it is also in See also:evidence. But the principles which have been reviewed as guiding the development of the miniature in the more important schools apply equally to all. Like the miniature of the Flemish school, the Italian miniature was still worked to some extent with success, under special patronage, even in the 6th century; but with the rapid displacement of the manuscript by the printed See also:book the miniaturist's occupation was brought to a close. FoR Authorities see under ILLUMINATED MSS. (E. M. T.)
2. Miniatures as See also:separate Small Pictures.—In Europe the later development of the miniature, applied almost exclusively to portraits, is to a large extent English, and the greater number of the chief masters in the art have been Englishmen or have lived in England. Several great portrait painters are said to have worked occasionally in miniature, and there are paintings, small in See also:size attributed with good reason to See also:Holbein, See also:Antonio See also:Moro, See also: The colours are opaque; gold is used to heighten the effect; while the paintings are on card. They are often signed, and have frequently also a Latin See also:motto upon them. It has recently been proved that Hilliard worked for a while in France, and he is probably identical with the painter alluded to in 1577 as " Nicholas Belliart." Nicholas Hilliard was succeeded by his son See also:Lawrence (d. 1640), some works by whom are in the Pierpont Morgan and Madresfield Court collections. His technique was similar to that of his See also:father, but bolder, and his miniatures richer in colour. See also:Isaac and See also:Peter See also:Oliver succeeded Hilliard. Isaac
(c. 1567–1617) is said to have been the See also:pupil of Hilliard and Zucchero. Peter (1594–1647) was the pupil of Isaac. The two men were the earliest to give roundness and form to the faces they painted. They signed their best works in See also:monogram, and painted not only very small miniatures, but larger ones measuring as much as to in. by 9 in. They copied for See also: Several of these copies are at See also:Windsor and at Montagu House. At about the same date Gerbier, Poelemberg, Jamesone, See also:Penelope Cleyn and her See also:brothers, were workers in the art. John See also:Hoskins
(d. 1664) wasthe See also:master of See also:Samuel See also: His work is frequently signed with his See also:initials, generally in gold, and very often with the addition of the date. Flatman (d. 1688); See also: His portraits are generally on ivory, although occasionally he worked on paper or vellum, and he produced a great many full-length See also:pencil drawings on paper, in which he slightly tinted the faces and hands, and these he called " stayned " drawings. Cosway's finest miniatures are signed on the back; there is but one genuine signed on the face; very few bear even his initials on the front. George See also:Engleheart (1750-1829) painted 4900 miniatures, and his work is stronger and more impressive than that of Cosway; it is often signed " E " or " G.E." See also:Andrew See also:Plimer (1763-1837) was a pupil of Cosway, and both he and his See also:brother Nathaniel produced some lovely portraits. The brightness of the eyes, wiriness of the See also:hair, exuberance of colour, combined with forced See also:chiaroscuro and often very inaccurate drawing, are characteristics of Andrew Plimer's work. John See also:Smart (x 741-1811) was in some respects the greatest of the 18th-century miniaturists. His work excelled in refinement, See also:power and delicacy; its silky texture and elaborate finish, and the artist's love for a See also: See also:Sir See also: A great
collection of his small enamel reproductions of celebrated paintings is in See also:Buckingham See also:Palace.
The earliest French miniature painters were See also:Jean See also:Clouet (d. c. 1540), his son See also:Francois, Jean See also:Fouquet, Jean Perreal and others; but of their work in See also:portraiture we have little trace at the present See also:day, although there are many portraits and a vast number of drawings attributed to them with more or less reason. The seven portraits in the manuscript of the Gallic See also:War (Bibliotheque Nationale) are assigned to the See also:elder Clouet; and to them may be added a fine work, in the Pierpont Morgan collection, representing the Mareschal de See also:Brissac. Following these men we find the two Stresors, St See also:Andre, Cotelle and Masse; the fine draughtsmen Picart, Vauthier and Cheron; and then, later on, we know of miniatures by See also:Largilliere, See also:Boucher, See also:Nattier, Montpetit, Desfosses, See also:Drouais, Charlier, Thouron, Perrin and Dubourg; but the greatest names are those of See also: Many Dutch and German miniatures were painted in oil, and as a rule these are on copper; and there are portraits in the same See also:medium, and often on the same material, attributed to many of the great Italian artists, notably those of the See also:Bologna school. Samuel Cooper is said to have executed a few paintings in oil on copper, but we
know little about the artists who prepared the numerous oil portraits in foreign collections.
The work of the 18th century on ivory is, of course, in water-colour. The use of ivory came into general See also:adoption in the early part of the reign of William III., miniatures previous to that time having been painted on vellum, chicken-skin or card-See also:board, a few on the backs of playing See also:cards, and many more on very thin vellum closely mounted on to playing cards.
The most important collections of miniatures in England in 1907 were those in the See also:possession of the king, the duke of See also:Buccleuch, Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, the duke of See also:Rutland, the earls of See also:Exeter, See also:Ilchester, See also:Dysart, Dartrey (notable for enamel work, some examples of which are of the greatest rarity) and Ancaster (especially notable for works by Cosway), of See also:Earl See also:Beauchamp, the See also:late Baroness See also:Burdett-See also:Coutts, Sir See also:Gardner Engleheart (remarkable for containing almost exclusively works by the Engleheart family), See also:Lord Weardale, and Messrs See also:Drake, See also:Digby, Williams, See also:Whitehead, and See also:Usher of See also:Lincoln. There is a remarkable collection, principally of works in enamel, in the University See also:Gallery, See also:Oxford, a few fine miniatures at South See also:Kensington, and in the same museum in the See also: C. See also:Williamson, History of Portrait Miniatures (2 vols., folio, 1904), Portrait Miniatures (London, 1897) ; Richard Cosway (London, 1897) ; George Engleheart (London, 1902) ; Andrew Plimer, &c. (London, 1902) ; How to Identify Miniatures (London, 19o4); Richard Cosway (London, 1905), and the privately printed See also:catalogue of the Pierpont Morgan Collection (19(36, 1907, 1908) ; See also:Les Emaux de Petitot du Louvre (Paris, 1862-1864) ; catalogues of the Buccleuch Gallery, Welbeck Gallery, See also: Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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