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district of Orel and receives the navigable Zusha; and the Desna, with the Bolva, draining the marshy lowlands in the west. Geologically Orel consists principally of See also:

LOWER

Lower Devonian limestones, marls and sandstones, covered with See also:

JURASSIC

Jurassic See also:

CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays, the last appearing at the surface, however, only as isolated islands, or in the valleys, being concealed for the most part under thick beds of Cretaceous See also:

CHALK

chalk, marls and sands. The Carboniferous limestones and clays (of the so-called See also:

Moscow See also:

basin) show in the See also:

north-west only at a See also:

GREAT

great See also:

DEPTH

depth. The Jurassic clays and marls are overlain at several places with a stratum of See also:

clay containing See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-ore, while the Devonian sandstones and limestones are worked for See also:

BUILDING

building purposes. The whole is buried under a See also:

bed, 30 to 40 ft. thick, of See also:

boulder-clay and See also:

LOESS (Ger. Loss)

loess, the last covering extensive areas as well as the valleys. The See also:

SOIL

soil—a mixture of " See also:

black See also:

earth " with clay—is fertile, except in the Desna region in the west, where sands and tenacious clays predominate. On the Oka, Zusha, Desna and Bolva there is a brisk See also:

TRAFFIC

traffic in See also:

corn, oil, See also:

HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp, See also:

TIMBER

timber, See also:

metal, See also:

glass, See also:

CHINA

china, See also:

paper and building-See also:

stone. Marshes occupy large areas in the basin of the Desna, as also in several parts of that of the Oka; they are mostly covered with forests, which run up to 50 to 65% of the area in the districts of Bryansk, Trubchevsk and Karachev, while towards the See also:

east, in the basin of the Don, See also:

wood is so scarce that See also:

STRAW

straw is used for See also:

FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel The See also:

CLIMATE

climate is moderate, the See also:

AVERAGE

average yearly temperature at Orel being 41.2° (14.80 in See also:

JANUARY

January and 67.0° in See also:

JULY

July). The estimated See also:

POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population in 1906 was 2,365,700. It consists almost exclusively of Great Russians, belonging to the Orthodox See also:

Greek See also:

Church; the Nonconformists are reckoned at about 12,000, the See also:

ROMAN

Roman Catholics at 3000 and the See also:

Jews at r000.

The See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief occupation is See also:

agriculture, which is most productive in the east and towards the centre of the government. The principal crops are See also:

rye, oats, See also:

BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, See also:

wheat, hemp, potatoes, hops, vegetables, See also:

TOBACCO

tobacco and See also:

FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit. Of the See also:

GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain not used in the distilleries a large proportion is exported to the Baltic. Hemp and hemp-See also:

SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed oil are extensively exported from the west to See also:

RIGA (Esth. Ria-Lin)

Riga, See also:

LIBAU (Lettish, Leepaya)

Libau and St See also:

PETERSBURG

Petersburg. Tobacco is cultivated with profit. See also:

CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

Cattle and See also:

HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-breeding flourishes better than in the neighbouring governments—the Orel breeds of both See also:

CARRIAGE

carriage and See also:

DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught horses being held in estimation throughout Russia. See also:

BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

Bee-keeping is widely diffused in the See also:

FOREST

forest districts, as are also the timber-See also:

trade and the preparation of See also:

tar and See also:

pitch. Manufactures are rapidly increasing; they produce See also:

CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast-iron rails, machinery, See also:

LOCOMOTIVE

locomotive engines and railway wagons, glass, hemp-See also:

YARN

yarn and See also:

ROPES, JOHN CODMAN (1836–1899)

ropes, See also:

leather, timber, See also:

SOAP

soap, tobacco and chemical produce. There are also distilleries and a great many smaller oil-See also:

WORKS

works and See also:

FLOUR

flour-See also:

mills. Karachev and Syevsk are important centres for hemp-See also:

CARDING

carding; See also:

BOLKHOV

Bolkhov and See also:

ELETS

Elets are the chief centres of the tanning See also:

INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry; while the districts of Elets, Dmitrov and partly See also:

MTSENSK (popularly Ainchensk)

Mtsensk See also:

SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply flour and various See also:

food-pastes. At Bryansk there is a government See also:

CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination -on, -one)

cannon-foundry. The " Maltsov works " in the district of Bryansk are an See also:

INDUSTRIAL

industrial See also:

COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony (20,000), comprising several iron, machinery, glass and rope works, where thousands of peasants find temporary or permanent employment; they have their own technical school, employ See also:

ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers of their own training, and have their own narrow-See also:

GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon)

gauge See also:

RAILWAYS

railways and telegraphs, both managed by boys of the technical school.

Numerous See also:

PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty trades are carried on by the peasants, along with agriculture. The government is divided into twelve districts, of which the chief towns are Orel, the See also:

capital, Bolkhov, Bryansk, Dmitrovsk, Elets, Karachev, Kromy, Livny, Malo-arkhangelsk, Mtsensk, Syevsk and Trubchevsk. In the 9th See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country was inhabited by the Slav tribes of the Syeveryanes on the Desna and the Vyatichis on the Oka, who both paid See also:

TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute to the See also:

KHAZARS (known also as Chozars, as 'Aal r?'rpor or X6 apor in Byzantine writers, as Khazirs in Armenian and Khwalisses in Russian chronicles, and Ugri Bielii in Nestor)

Khazars. The Syeveryanes recognised the See also:

RULE

rule of the princes of the Rurik See also:

FAMILY

family from 884, and the Vyatichis from the See also:

MIDDLE

middle of the loth century; but the two peoples followed different See also:

HISTORICAL

historical lines, the former being absorbed into the Suzdal principality, while the latter See also:

fell under the rule of that of See also:

CHERNIGOV

Chernigov. In the Irth century both had wealthy towns and villages; during the Mongol invasion of 1239-1242 these were all burned and pillaged, and the entire territory devastated. With the decay of the Great See also:

HORDE

Horde of the See also:

MONGOLS

Mongols the western part of the country fell under Lithuanian rule, and was the See also:

OBJECT

object of repeated struggles between Lithuania and Moscow. In the 16th century the Russians began to erect new forts and fortify the old towns, and the territory was rapidly colonized by immigrants from the north. In 1610 the towns of the See also:

PRESENT

present government of Orel (then known as the Ukrayna See also:

UKRAINE (" frontier ")

Ukraine, i.e. " border-region,") took an active See also:

SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the insurrection against Moscow under the false See also:

DEMETRIUS

Demetrius, and suffered much from the See also:

CIVIL

civil See also:

war which ensued. They continued, however, to be See also:

UNITED

united with the See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of Russia. (P. A.

K.; J. T.

End of Article: OREL, OR ORLOV

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