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south of it), or by the Via Tusculana (though the antiquity of the latter road is doubtful). According to tradition, the city was founded by Telegonus; the son of Ulysses and See also:

CIRCE (Gr. Kiprcrl)

Circe. When Tarquinius Superbus was expelled from Rome his cause was espoused by the See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of Tusculum, Octavius Mamilius, who took a leading See also:

PART

part in the formation of the Latin See also:

LEAGUE

League, composed of the See also:

THIRTY

thirty See also:

PRINCIPAL

principal cities of Latium, banded together against Rome. Mamilius commanded the Latin See also:

army at the See also:

BATTLE

battle of See also:

Lake See also:

REGILLUS

Regillus (497 B.C.), but was killed, and the predominance of Rome among the Latin cities was practically established. According to some accounts Tusculum became from that See also:

time an ally of Rome, and on that See also:

account frequently incurred the hostility of the other Latin cities. In 381 B.e., after an expression of See also:

COMPLETE

complete submission to Rome, the See also:

PEOPLE

people of Tusculum received the See also:

ROMAN

Roman See also:

FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise, but without the See also:

VOTE

vote, and thenceforth the city continued to hold the See also:

RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of a See also:

MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to take)

municipium. Other accounts, however, speak of Tusculum as often allied with Rome's enemies —last of all with the See also:

SAMNITES

Samnites in 323 B.C. Several of the chief I Roman families were of Tusculan origin, e.g. the gentes Mamilia, Fulvia, Fonteia, Juventia and Porcia; to the last-named the I celebrated Catos belonged.

The See also:

TOWN

town See also:

COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council kept the name of See also:

SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate, but the See also:

TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of See also:

DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator gave See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to that of See also:

AEDILE (Lat. aedilis)

aedile. Notwithstanding this, and the fact that a See also:

SPECIAL

special See also:

COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of Roman See also:

EQUITES (" horsemen " or " knights," from eques," horse ")

equites was formed to take See also:

charge of the cults of the gods at Tusculum, and especially of the Dioscuri, the citizens See also:

RESIDENT

resident there were neither numerous nor men of distinction. The villas of the neighbourhood had indeed acquired greater importance than the not easily accessible town itself, and by the end of the See also:

REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic, and still more during the imperial See also:

period, the territory of Tusculum was one of the favourite places of See also:

RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the wealthy See also:

Romans. The number and extent of the remains almost defy description, and can only be made clear by a See also:

map. Even in the time of See also:

CICERO

Cicero we hear of eighteen owners of villas there. Much of the territory (including Cicero's See also:

VILLA

villa), but not the town itself, which lies far too high, was supplied with See also:

WATER

water by the Aqua Crabra. On the See also:

hill of Tusculum itself are remains of a small See also:

THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre (excavated in 1839), with a See also:

RESERVOIR

reservoir behind it, and an See also:

AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. 441, around, and O&arpov, a place for spectators)

amphitheatre. Both belong probably to the imperial period, and so does a very large villa (the sub-structures of which are preserved), by some attributed, but wrongly, to Cicero, by others to Tiberius, near the latter. Between the amphitheatre and the theatre is the site of the See also:

FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

Forum, of which nothing is now visible, and to the south on a projecting See also:

SPUR (A.S. spura, spora, related to spornan, spurnan, to kick, spurn; cf. M.H.G. sporn, mod. Ger. Sporn)

spur were tombs of the Roman period. There are also many remains of houses and villas. The citadel—which stood on the highest point an abrupt See also:

rock—was approached only on one See also:

side, that towards the city, and even here by a steep ascent of 150 ft. Upon it remains of the See also:

MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

castle, which stood here until 1191, alone are visible.

The city walls, of which some remains still exist below the theatre, are built of blocks of the native " lapis Albanus " or See also:

PEPERINO

peperino. They probably belong to the republican period. Below them is a well-See also:

house, with a roof formed of a pointed See also:

arch—generally held to go back to a somewhat remote antiquity, but hardly with sufficient See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason. The most interesting associations of the city are those connected with Cicero, whose favourite residence and See also:

RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat for study and See also:

LITERARY

literary See also:

WORK

work was at, or rather near, Tusculum. It. was here that he composed his celebrated Tusculan Disputations and other philosophical See also:

WORKS

works. Much has been written on the position of his villa, but its true site still remains doubtful. The theory, which places it at or near Grotta Ferrata, some distance farther to the west, has most See also:

EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence to support it. Although Cicero (See also:

Pro Sestio, 43) speaks of his own house as being insignificant in See also:

SIZE

size compared to that of his See also:

NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour See also:

GABINIUS, AULUS

Gabinius, yet we gather from other notices in various parts of his works that it was a considerable See also:

BUILDING

building. It comprised two gymnasia (Div. i. 5), with covered porticus for exercise and philosophical discussion (Tusc. Disp. ii. 3).

One of these, which stood on higher ground, was called " the See also:

LYCEUM

Lyceum," and contained a library (Div. ii. 3); the other, on a See also:

LOWER

lower site, shaded by rows of trees, was called " the See also:

Academy." The main building contained a covered porticus, or See also:

CLOISTER (Lat. claustrum; Fr. cloitre; Ital. chiostro; Span. claustro; Ger. Kloster)

cloister, with apsidal recesses (exedrae) containing seats (see Ad Fam. vii. 23). It also had bathrooms (Ad Fam. xiv. 20), and contained a number of works of See also:

art, both pictures and statues in See also:

BRONZE

bronze and See also:

MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble (Ep. ad Att. i. 1, 8, 9, ro). The central See also:

ATRIUM (either from ater, black, referring to the blackening of the walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek aiOpeov, open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of building is supposed to have originated)

atrium appears to have been small, as Cicero speaks of it as an atriolum (Ad Quint. Fr. iii. 1). The cost of this and the other house which he built at See also:

POMPEII

Pompeii led to his being burdened with See also:

DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt (Ep. ad Att. ii. 1). Nothing now exists which can be asserted to be part of Cicero's villa with any degree of certainty.

During the imperial period little is recorded about Tusculum; but soon after the transference of the seat of See also:

EMPIRE

empire to See also:

Constantinople it became a very important stronghold, and for some centuries its See also:

COUNTS

counts occupied a leading position in Rome and were specially influential in the selection of the popes. During the 12th See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century there were See also:

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant struggles between Rome and Tusculum, and towards the See also:

close of the century (r 191) the Romans, supported by the See also:

German See also:

EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, gained the upper See also:

hand, and the walls of Tusculum, together with the whole city, were destroyed. See L. See also:

CANINA, LUIGI (1795-1856)

Canina, Descr. dell' antico Tusculo (Rome, 1841) ; A. Nibby, Dintorni di See also:

ROMA

Roma, iii. 293 (2nd ed., Rome, 1841); H. See also:

DESSAU

Dessau in Corp. inscript. See also:

lat. pp. 252 sqq. (See also:

Berlin, 1887); F. See also:

Grossi-Gondi, Il Tuscolano nell' eta, classica (Rome, 1907) ; T. See also:

ASHBY, TURNER (1824-1862)

Ashby in Papers of the See also:

BRITISH

British School at Rome, iv. 5 (See also:

LONDON

London, 1907, 1909).

(T.

End of Article: TUSCULUM

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