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GLACIER (adopted from the French; fro...

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Originally appearing in Volume V12, Page 63 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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GLACIER (adopted from the See also:French; from glace, See also:ice, See also:Lat. glacies) , a See also:mass of compacted ice originating in a See also:snow-See also:field. Glaciers are formed on any portion of the See also:earth's See also:surface that is permanently above the snow-See also:line. This line varies locally in the same latitudes, being in some places higher than in others, but in the See also:main it may be described as an elliptical See also:shell surrounding the earth with its longest See also:diameter in the tropics and its shortest in the polar regions, where it touches See also:sea-level. From the extreme regions of the See also:Arctic and See also:Antarctic circles this See also:cold shell swells upwards into a broad See also:dome, from 15,000 to 18,000 ft. high over the tropics, truncating, as it rises, a number of peaks and See also:mountain ranges whose upper portions like all regions above this thermal shell receive all their moisture in the See also:form of snow. Since the temperature above the snow-line is below freezing point evaporation is very slight, and as the snow is solid it tends to accumulate in snow-See also:fields, where the snow of one See also:year is covered by that of the next, and these are wrapped over many deeper layers that have fallen in previous years. If these piles of snow were rigid and immovable they would increase in height until the whole field See also:rose above the See also:zone of See also:ordinary atmospheric precipitation, and the polar ice-caps would add a load to these regions that would produce far-reaching results. The mountain regions also would rise some See also:miles in height, and all their features would be buried in domes of snow some miles in thickness. When, however, there is sufficient See also:weight the mass yields to pressure and flows outwards and downwards. Thus a See also:balance of weight and height is established, and the ice-field is disintegrated principally at the edges, the surplus in polar regions being carried off in the form of icebergs, and in mountain regions by streams that flow from the melting ends of the glaciers. Formation.—The formation of glaciers is in all cases due to similar causes, namely, to periodical and intermittent falls of snow. After a snow-fall there is a See also:period of See also:rest during which the snow becomes compacted by pressure and assumes the well-known granular See also:character seen in See also:banks and patches of ordinary snow that See also:lie longest upon the ground when the snow is melting. This is the firn or nevi;.

The next fall of snow covers and conceals the neve, but the See also:

light fresh crystals of this new snow in turn become compacted to the coarsely crystalline granular form of the underlying layer and become neve in turn. The See also:process goes on continually; the See also:lower layers become subject to greater and greater pressure, and in consequence become gradually compacted into dense clear ice, which, however, retains its granular crystalline texture throughout. The upper layers of neve are usually stratified, owing to some individual peculiarity in the fall, or to the See also:accumulation of dust or debris upon the surface' before it is covered by fresh snow. This stratificationis often visible on the emerging glacier, though it is to be distinguished from the foliation planes caused by shearing See also:movement in the See also:body of the glacier ice. Types.—The snow-field upon which a glacier depends is always formed when snow-fall is greater than snow-See also:waste. This occurs under varying conditions with a differently resulting type of glacier. There are limited fields of snow in many mountain regions giving rise to See also:long See also:tongues of ice moving slowly down the valleys and therefore called " valley glaciers." The greater See also:part of See also:Greenland is covered by an ice-cap extending over nearly 400,000 sq. m., forming a See also:kind of enormous continuous glacier on its lower slopes. The Antarctic ice region is believed to extend over more than 3,000,000 sq. m. Each of these See also:continental fields, besides producing See also:block as distinguished from See also:tongue glaciers, sends into the sea a See also:great number of ice-bergs during the summer See also:season. These ice-caps covering great regions are by far the most important types. Between these " polar " or " continental glaciers " and the " alpine " type there are many grades. Smaller detached ice-caps may rest upon high plateaus as in See also:Iceland, or several tongues of ice coming down neighbouring valleys may splay out into convergent lobes on lower ground and form a " See also:piedmont glacier " such as the Malaspina Glacier in See also:Alaska.

When the snow-field lies in a small depression the glacier may remain suspended in the hollow and advance no farther than the edge of the snow-field. This is called a " cliff -glacier," and is not uncommon in mountain regions. The end of a larger glacier, or the edge of an ice-See also:

sheet, may reach a precipitous cliff, where the ice will break from the edge of the advancing mass and fall in blocks to the lower ground, where a " reconstructed glacier " will be formed from the fragments and advance farther down the slope. When a glacier originates upon a dome-shaped or a level surface the ice will deploy radially in all directions. When a snow-field is formed above steep valleys separated by high ridges the ice will flow downwards in long streams. If the valleys under the snow-fields are wide and shallow the resultant glaciers will broaden out and partially fill them, and in all cases, since the conditions of glacier formation are similar, the resultant form and the direction of See also:motion will depend upon the amount of ice and the form of the surface over which the glacier flows. A glacier flowing down a narrow See also:gorge to an open valley, or on to a See also:plain, will spread at its See also:foot into a See also:fan-shaped See also:lobe as the ice spreads outwards while moving downwards. An ice-cap is in the main thickest at the centre, and thins out at the edges. A valley glacier is thickest at some point between its source and its end, but nearer to its source than to its termination, but its thickness at various portions will depend upon the See also:contour of the valley See also:floor over which the glacier rides, and may reach many hundreds of feet. At its centre the Greenland ice-cap is estimated to be over 5000 ft. thick. In all cases the glacier ends where the waste of ice is greater than the See also:supply, and since the relationship varies in different years, or cycles of years, the end of a glacier may advance or See also:retreat in See also:harmony with greater or less snow-fall or with cooler or hotter summers. There seems to be a See also:cycle of inclusive contraction and expansion of from 35 to 40 or 5o years.

At See also:

present the ends of the Swiss glaciers are cradled in a mass of See also:moraine-stuff due to former See also:extension of the glaciers, and investigations in See also:India show that in some parts of the Himalayas the glaciers are retreating as they are in See also:North See also:America and even in the See also:southern hemisphere (Nature, See also:January 2, 1908, p. 201). Movement.—The fact that a glacier moves is easily demonstrated; the cause of the movement is pressure upon a yielding mass; the nature of the movement is still under discussion. Rows of stakes or stones placed in line across a glacier are found to See also:change their position with respect to See also:objects on the See also:bank and also with regard to each other. The posts in the centre of the ice-stream gradually move away from those at the See also:side, proving that the centre moves faster than the sides. It has also been proved that the surface portions move more rapidly than the deeper layers and that the motion is slowest at the sides and bottom where See also:friction is greatest. The See also:rate of motion past the same spot is not See also:uniform. See also:Heat accelerates it, cold arrests it, and the pressure of a large amount of See also:water stimulates the flow. The rate of flow under the same conditions varies at different parts of the glacier directly as the thickness of ice, the steepness of slope and the smoothness of rocky floor. Generally speaking, the rate of motion depends upon the amount of ice that forms the " See also:head " pressure, the slope of the under surface and of the upper surface, the nature of the floor, the temperature and the amount of water present in the ice. The ordinary rate of motion is very slow. In Switzer-See also:land it is from r or 2 in. to 4 ft. per See also:day, in Alaska 7 ft., in See also:Green-land 50 to 6o ft., and occasionally 'co ft. per day in the height of summer under exceptional conditions of quantity of ice and of water and slope.

Measurements of Swiss glaciers show that near the ice foot where wastage is great there is very little movement, and observations upon the inland border of Greenland ice show that it is almost stationary over long distances. In many aspects the motion of a body of ice resembles that of a bcdy of water, and an alpine glacier is often called an ice-See also:

river, since like a river it moves faster in the centre than at the sides and at the See also:top faster than at the bottom. A glacier follows a See also:curve in the same way as a river, and there appear to be ice swirls and eddies as well as an upward creep on shelving curves recalling many features of stream See also:action. Thd rate of motion of both ice-stream and river is accelerated by quantity and steepness of slope and retarded by roughness of See also:bed, but here the comparison ends, for temperature does not affect the rate of water motion, nor will a liquid crack into crevasses as a glacier does, or move upwards over an adverse slope as a glacier always does when there is sufficient " head " of ice above it. So that although in many respects ice behaves as a viscous fluid the comparison with such a fluid is not perfect. The cause of glacier motion must be based upon some more or less complex considerations. The flakes of snow are gradually transformed into granules because 'the points and angles of the See also:original flakes melt and evaporate more readily than the more solid central portions, which become aggregated See also:round some See also:master flake that continues to grow in the neve at the expense of its smaller neighbours, and increases in See also:size until finally the glacier ice is composed of a mass of interlocked crystalline granules, some as large as a See also:walnut, closely compacted under pressure with the See also:principal crystalline axes in various directions. In the upper portions of the glacier movement due to pressure probably takes See also:place by the gliding of one granule over another. In this connexion it must be noted that pressure lowers the melting point of ice while tension raises it, and at all points of pressure there is therefore a tendency to momentary melting, and also to some evaporation due to the heat caused by pressure, and at the intermediate tension spaces between the points of pressure this resultant liquid and vapour will be at once re-frozen and become solid: The granular movement is thus greatly facilitated, while the body of ice remains in a crystalline solid See also:condition. In this connexion it is well to remember that the pressure of the glacier upon its floor will have the same result, but the effect here is a mass-effect and facilitates the gliding of the ice over obstacles, since the friction produces heat and the pressure lowers the melting point, so that the two causes tend to liquefy the portion where pressure is greatest and so to " lubricate " the prominences and enable the glacier to slide more easily over them, while the liquid thus produced is re-frozen when the pressure is removed. In polar regions of very See also:low temperature a very considerable amount of pressure must be necessary before the ice granules yield to momentary liquefaction at the points of pressure, and this probably accounts for the extreme thickness of the Arctic and Antarctic ice-caps where the slopes are moderate, for although 'equally low temperatures are found in high Alpine snow-fields the slopes there are exceedingly steep and motion is therefore more easily produced. Observations made upon the Greenland glaciers indicate a considerable amount of " shearing " movement in the lower portions of a glacier.

Where obstacles in the bed of the glacierarrest the movement of the ice immediately above it, or where the lower portion of the glacier is choked by debris, the upper ice glides over the lower in shearing planes that are sometimes strongly marked by debris caught and pushed forwards along these planes of foliation. It must be remembered that there is a solid push from behind upon the lower portion of a glacier, quite different from the pressure of a body of water upon any point, for the pressure of a fluid is equal in all directions, and also that this push will tend to set the crystalline granules in positions in which their crystalline axes are parallel along the gliding planes. The See also:

production of gliding planes is in some cases facilitated by the descent into the glacier of water melted during summer, where it expands in freezing and pushes the adjacent ice away from it, forming a surface along which movement is readily established. If under all circumstances the glacier melted under pressure at the bottom, glacial See also:abrasion would be nearly impossible, since every small See also:stone and fragment of See also:rock would rotate in a liquid shell as the ice moved forward, but since the pressure is not always sufficient to produce melting, the glacier sometimes remains dry at its See also:base; rock fragments are held firmly; and a dry glacier may thus become a graving See also:tool of enormous See also:power. Whatever views may be adopted as to the causes of glacier motion, the See also:peculiar character of glacier ice as distinct from homogeneous river or See also:pond ice must be kept in view, as well as the. characteristic tendency of water to expand in freezing, the lowering of the melting point of ice under pressure, the raising of the melting point under tension, the production of gliding or shearing planes under pressure from above, the presence in summer of a considerable quantity of water in the lower portions of the glacier which are thus loosened, the cracking of ice (as into crevasses), under sudden See also:strain, and the regelation of ice in contact. A result of this last process is that fissures are not permanent, but having been produced by the passage of ice over an obstruction, they subsequently become healed when the ice proceeds over a flatter bed. Finally it must be remembered that although glacier ice behaves in some sense like a viscous fluid its condition is totally different, since " a glacier is a crystalline rock of the purest and simplest type, and it never has other than the crystalline See also:state." Characteristics.—The See also:general See also:appearance of a glacier varies according to its environment of position and temperature. The upper portion is hidden by neve and often by freshly fallen snow, and is smooth and unbroken. During the summer, when little snow falls, the body of the glacier moves away from the snow-field and a gaping See also:crevasse of great See also:depth is usually established called the See also:bergschrund, which is sometimes taken as the upper limit of the glacier. The glacier as it moves down the valley may become " loaded " in various ways. Rock-falls send periodical showers of stones upon it from the heights, and these are spread out into long lines at the glacier sides as the ice moves downwards carrying the rock fragments with it. These are the " lateral moraines." When two or more glaciers descending adjacent valleys converge into one glacier one or more sides of the higher valleys disappear, and the ice that was contained in several valleys is now carried by one.

In the simplest See also:

case where two valleys converge into one the two inner lateral moraines meet and continue to stream down the larger valley as one " median moraine." Where several valleys meet there are several such parallel median moraines, and so long as the ice remains unbroken these will be carried upon the surface of the glacier and finally tipped over the end. There is, however, See also:differential See also:heating of rock and ice, and if the stones carried are thin they tend to sink into the ice because they absorb heat readily and melt the ice under them. Dust has the same effect and produces " dust See also:wells " that See also:honeycomb the upper surface of the ice with holes into which the dust sinks. If the moraine rocks are thick they prevent the ice under them from melting in sunlight, and isolated blocks often remain supported upon ice-pillars in the form of ice tables, which finally collapse, so that such rocks may be scattered out of the line of the moraine. As the glacier descends into the lower valleys it is more strongly heated, and surface in " alpine " glaciers, the See also:apex pointing downwards to the zone streams are established in consequence that flow into channels caused by unequal melting of the ice and finally plunge into crevasses. These crevasses are formed by strains established as the central parts See also:drag away from the sides of the glacier and the upper surface from the lower, and more markedly by the tension due to a sudden See also:bend in the glacier caused by an in-equality in its bed which must be over-ridden. These crevasses are See also:developed at right angles to the strain and often produce intersecting fissures in several directions. The morainic material is gradually dispersed by the inequalities produced, and is further distributed by the action of superficial streams until the whole surface is strewn with stones and debris, and presents, as in the lower portions of the Mer de Glace, an exceedingly dirty appearance. Many blocks of stone fall into the gaping crevasses and much loose rock is carried down as "englacial material " in the body of the glacier. Some of it reaches the bottom and becomes part of the "ground moraine" which underlies the glacier, at least from the bergschntnd to the " snout," where much of it is carried away by the issuing stream and spread finally on to the plains below. It appears that a very considerable amount of degradation is caused under the bergschrund by the mass of ice " plucking " and dragging great blocks of rock from the side of the mountain valley where the great head of ice rests in See also:winter and whence it begins to move in summer. These blocks and many smaller fragments are carried downwards wedged in the ice and cause powerful abrasion upon the rocky floor, rasping and scoring the channel, producing conspicuous striae, polishing and rounding the rock surfaces, and grinding the. contained fragments as well as the surface over which it passes into small fragments and See also:fine See also:powder, from which " See also:boulder See also:clay " or " till " is finally produced.

Emerging, then, from the snow-field as pure granular ice the glacier gradually. becomes strewn and filled with See also:

foreign material, not only from above but also, as is very evident in some Greenland glaciers, occasionally from below by masses of fragments that move upwards along gliding planes, or are forced upwards by slow swirls in the ice itself. As a glacier is a very brittle body any abrupt change in gradient will produce a number of crevasses, and these, together with those produced by dragging strains, will frequently See also:wedge the glacier into a mass of pinnacles or seracs that may be partially healed but are usually evident when the melting end of the glacier emerges suddenly from a steep valley. Here the streams widen the weaker portions and the moraine rocks fall from the end to produce the " terminal " moraine, which usually lies in a crescentic heap encircling the glacier snout, whence it can only be moved by a further advance of the glacier or by the ordinary slow process of atmospheric denudation. In cases where no rock falls upon the surface there is a considerable amount of englacial material due to upturning either over accumulated ground debris or over structural inequalities in the rock floor. This is well seen at the steep sides and ends of Greenland glaciers, where material frequently comes to the surface of the melting ice and produces median and lateral moraines, besides appearing in enormous " eyes " surrounded in the glacial body by contorted and foliated ice and sometimes producing heaps and embankments as it is pushed out at the end of the melting ice. The environment of temperature requires See also:consideration. At the upper or dorsal portion of the glacier there is a zone of variable (winter and summer) temperature, beneath which, if the ice is thick enough, there is a zone of See also:constant temperature which will be about the mean See also:annual temperature of the region of the snow-field. Underlying this there is a more or less constant ventral or ground temperature, , depending mainly upon the See also:internal heat of the earth, which is conducted to the under surface of the glacier where it slowly melts the ice, the more readily because the pressure lowers the melting point consider-ably, so that streams of water run constantly from beneath many glaciers, adding their See also:volume to the springs which issue from the rock. The See also:middle zone of constant temperature is wedge-shaped of waste. The upper zone of variable temperature is thinnest in the snow-field where the mean temperature is lowest, and entirely dominant in the snout end of the glacier where the zone of constant temperature disappears. Two temperature wedges are thus superposed base to point, the one being thickest where the other is thinnest, and both these lie upon the basal film of temperature where the escaping earth-heat is strengthened by that due to friction and pressure. The cold See also:wave of winter may pass right through a thin glacier, or the constant temperature may be too low to permit of the ice melting at the base, in which cases the glacier is " dry " and has great eroding power.

But in the lower warmer portions water See also:

running through crevasses will raise the temperature, and increase the strength of the downward heat wave, while the mean annual temperature being there higher, the combined result will be that the glacier will gradually become " wet " at the base and have little eroding power, and it will become more and more wet as it moves down the lower valley zone of ice-waste, until at last the balance is reached between waste and supply and the glacier finally disappears. If the mean annual temperature be 200 F., and the mean winter temperature be – 12° F., as in parts of Greenland, all the ice must be'considerably below the melting point, since the pressure of ice a mile in depth lowers the melting point only to 30° F.,. and the earth-heat is only sufficient to melt 4 in. of ice in a year. Therefore in these regions, and in snow-fields and high glaciers with an equal or lower mean temperature than 20° F., the glacier will be " dry " throughout, which may See also:account for the great eroding power stated to exist near the bergschrund in glaciers of an alpine type, which usually have their origin on precipitous slopes. A considerable amount of ice-waste takes place by water-drainage, 'though much is the result of constant evaporation from the ice surface. The lower end of a glacier is in summer flooded by streams of water that pour along cracks and plunge into crevasses, often forming " pot-holes " or See also:moulins where stones are swirled round in a glacial " See also:mill " and See also:wear holes in the solid rock below. Some of these streams issue in a spout See also:half way up the glacier's end See also:wall, but the See also:majority find their way through' it and join the water running along the glacier floor and emerging where the glacier ends in a large glacial stream. Results of Glacial Action.—A glacier is a degrading and an aggrading See also:agent. Much difference of See also:opinion exists as to the potency of a glacier to alter surface features, some maintaining that it is extraordinarily effective, and considering that a valley glacier forms a pronounced See also:cirque at the region of its origin and that the cirque is gradually cut backward until a long and deep valley is formed (which becomes evident, as in the Rocky Mountains, in an upper valley with " reversed grade " when the glacier disappears), and also that the end of a glacier plunging into a valley or a See also:fjord will See also:gouge a deep See also:basin at its region of impact. The Alaskan and See also:Norwegian fjords and the rock basins of the Scottish lochs are adduced as examples. Other writers maintain that a glacier is only a modifying and not a dominant agent in its effects upon the land-surface, considering, for example, that a glacier coming down a lateral valley will preserve the valley from the atmospheric denudation which has produced the main valley over which the lateral valley " hangs," a result which the believers in strong glacial action hold to be due to the more powerful action of the main glacier as contrasted with the weaker action of that in the lateral valley. Both the See also:advocates and the opponents of strenuous ice action agree that a V-shaped valley of stream erosion is converted to a U-shaped valley of glacial modification, and that rock surfaces are rounded into roches moutonnees, and are grooved and striated by the passage of ice shod with fragments of rock, while the subglacial material is ground into finer and finer fragments until it becomes mud and " rock-See also:flour " as the glacier proceeds. In any case striking results are See also:manifest in any formerly glaciated region.

The high peaks rise into pinnacles, and ridges with " See also:

house-roof " structure, above the former glacier, while below it the contours are all ' See also:Gladbach existed before the See also:time of See also:Charlemagne, and a Benerounded and typically subdued. A landscape that was formerly completely covered by a moving ice-cap has none but these rounded features of dome-shaped hills and U-shaped valleys that at least See also:bear See also:evidence to the great modifying power that a glacier has upon a landscape. There is no conflict of opinion with regard to glacial aggradation and the See also:distribution of superglacial, englacial and subglacial material, which during the active existence of a glacier is finally distributed by glacial streams that produce very considerable alluviation. In many regions which were covered by the See also:Pleistocene ice-sheet the See also:work of the glacier was arrested by melting before it was half done. Great deposits of till and boulder clay that See also:lay beneath the glaciers were abandoned in situ, and remain as an unsorted mixture of large boulders, pebbles and mingled fragments, embedded in clay or See also:sand. The lateral, median and terminal moraines were stranded where they sank as the ice disappeared, and together with perched blocks (roches perchees) remain as a permanent See also:record of former conditions which are now found to have existed temporarily in much earlier See also:geological times. In glaciated North America lateral moraines are found that are 500 to 1000 ft. high and in See also:northern See also:Italy 1500 to 2000 ft. high. The surface of the ground in all these places is modified into the characteristic glaciated landscape, and many formerly deep valleys are choked with glacial debris either completely changing the See also:local drainage systems, or compel-See also:ling the reappearing streams to cut new channels in a superposed drainage See also:system. See also:Kames also and eskers (q.v.) are See also:left under certain conditions, with many puzzling deposits that are clearly due to some features of ice-work not thoroughly understood. See L. See also:Agassiz, Etudes sur See also:les glaciers (See also:Neuchatel, 184o) and Nouvelles Etudes . . .

(See also:

Paris, 1847) ; N. S. Shaler and W. M. See also:Davis, Glaciers (See also:Boston, 1881); A. Penck, See also:Die Begletscherung der deutschen Al See also:pen (See also:Leipzig, 1882) ; J. See also:Tyndall, The Glaciers of the See also:Alps (See also:London, 1896) ; T. G. See also:Bonney, Ice-Work, Past and Present (London, 1896) ; I. C. See also:Russell, Glaciers' of North America (Boston, 1897); E. See also:Richter, Neue Ergebnisse and Probleme der Gletscherforschung (See also:Vienna, f899); F.

Forel, Essai sur les See also:

variations periodiques See also:des glaciers (See also:Geneva, 1881 and 1900) ; H. See also:Hess, Die Gletscher (See also:Brunswick, 1904). (E. C.

End of Article: GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. glacies)

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