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KASHMIRI (properly Kdimiri)
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See also:KASHMIRI (properly Kdimiri) , the name of the See also:vernacular See also:language spoken in the valley of See also:Kashmir (properly Kasmir) and in the hills adjoining. In the See also:Indian See also:census of 1901 the number of speakers was returned at 1,007,957. By origin it is the most See also:southern member of the Dard See also:group of the Pisaca See also:languages (see Imo-See also:ARYAN LANGUAGES). The other members of the group are Shina, spoken to its See also:north in the See also:country See also:round See also:Gilgit, and Kohistani, spoken in the See also: The immigrants into Kashmir must have been Shins, speaking a language closely allied to the ancestor of the See also:modern Shina. They appear to have dispossessed and absorbed an older non-Aryan See also:people, whom See also:local tradition now classes as Nagas, or Snake-gods, and, at an See also:early See also:period, to have come themselves under the See also:influence of Indo-Aryan immigrants from the See also:south, who entered the valley along the course of the river Jhelam. The language has therefore lost most of its See also:original Pisaca See also:character, and is now a mixed one. Sanskrit has been actively studied for many centuries, and the Kashmiri vocabulary, and even its See also:grammar, are now largely Indian. So much is this the See also:case that, for convenience' See also:sake, it is now frequently classed (see INno-ARYAN LANGUAGES) as belonging to the north-western group of Indo-Aryan languages, instead of as belonging to the Pisaca family as its origin demands. It cannot be said that either See also:classification is wrong. Kashmiri has few dialects. In the valley there are slight changes of See also:idiom from See also:place to place, but the only important variety is Kishtwari, spoken in the hills south-See also:west of Kashmir. Smaller dialects, such as Pogul and Rambani of the hills south of the Banihal pass, may also be mentioned. The language itself is an old one. Pure Kashmiri words are preserved in the Sanskrit Rajataraicgini written by Kalhana in the 12th See also:century A. D., and, judging from these specimens, the language does not appear to have changed materially since his See also:time. See also:General Character of the Language.—Kashmiri is a language of great philological See also:interest. The two See also:principal features which at once strike the student are the numerous epenthetic changes of vowels and consonants and the employment of pronominal suffixes. In both cases the phenomena are perfectly See also:plain, cause and effect being alike presented to the See also:eye in the somewhat complicated systems of declension and conjugation. The Indo-Aryan languages proper have long ago passed through this stage, and many of the phenomena now presented by them are due to its influence, although all See also:record of it has disappeared. In this way a study of Kashmiri explains a number of difficulties found by the student of Indo-Aryan vernaculars.' In the following See also:account the reader is presumed to be in See also:possession of the facts recorded in the articles INno-ARYAN LANGUAGES and See also:PRAKRIT, and the following contractions will be employed: Ksh.= Kashmiri ; Skr. = Sanskrit ; P. = Pisaca ; Sh. = Shina. A. Vocabulary. The vocabulary of Kashmiri is, as has been explained, mixed. At its basis it has a large number of words which are also found in the neighbouring Shina, and these are such as See also:con-See also:note the most See also:familiar ideas and such as are in most frequent use. Thus, the See also:personal pronouns, the earlier numerals, the words for " See also:father," " See also:mother," " See also:fire," " the See also:sun," are all closely connected with corresponding Shina words. There is also a large Indian See also:element, consisting partly of words derived from Sanskrit vocables introduced in See also:ancient times, and partly of words borrowed in later days from the vernaculars of the See also:Punjab. Finally, there is a considerable See also:Persian (including Arabic) element due to the long Mussulman domination of the Happy Valley. Many of these have been considerably altered in accordance with Kashmiri phonetic rules, so that they sometimes appear in See also:strange forms. Thus the Persian lagam, a bridle, has become lakam, and the Arabic babat, concerning, appears as &I pat. The See also:population speaking Kashmiri is mainly Mussulman, there being, roughly speaking, nine See also:Mahommedan Kashmiris to less than one Hindu. This difference of See also:religion has strongly influenced the vocabulary. The Mussulmans use Persian and Arabic words with great freedom, while the See also:Hindus, or " Pandits " as they are called, confine their borrowings almost entirely to words derived from Sanskrit. As the See also:literary class is mostly Hindu, it follows that Kashmiri literature, taken as a whole, while affording most interesting and profitable study, hardly represents the actual language spoken by the See also:mass of the people. There are, however, a few See also:good Kashmiri See also:works written by Mussulmans in their own See also:dialect. B. Written Characters. M ussulmans and See also:Christian missionaries em-ploy an See also:adaptation of the Persian character for their writings. This alphabet is quite unsuited for representing the very complex Kashmiri vowel system. Hindus employ the Sarada alphabet, of Indian origin and akin to the well-known Nagari. Kashmiri vowel sounds can be recorded very successfully in this character, but there is, unf or-tunately, no fixed system of spelling. The Nagari alphabet is also coming into use in printed books, no Sarada types being yet in existence. C. See also:Phonetics. Comparing the Kashmiri with the Sanskrit See also:alpha-See also:bet (see SANSKRIT), we must first note a considerable See also:extension of the vowel system. Not only does Ksh. possess the vowels a, a, u, u, r, e, ai, o, au, and the anunasika or nasal See also:symbol ", but it has also a See also:flat a (like the a in " See also:hat ") a flat a (like the e in " met "), a See also:short b (like the o in " hot ") and a broad a (like the a in " all "). It also has a See also:series of what natives See also:call " matra-vowels," which are represented in the See also:Roman character by small letters above the See also:line, viz. a " Of these, a is simply a very short indeterminate See also:sound something like that of the See also:Hebrew shawa See also:mobile, except that it may sometimes be the only vowel in a word, as in tsah, See also:thou. The ' is a hardly audible i, while " and " are quite inaudible at the end of a syllable. When ' or " is followed by a consonant in the same syllable ' generally and " always becomes a full i or u respectively and is so pronounced. On the other See also:hand, in similar circumstances, u- remains unchanged in See also:writing, but is pronounced like a short See also:German u. It should be observed that this " always represents an older i, and is still considered to be a palatal, not, like ", a labial vowel. Although these mats-vowels are so slightly heard, they exercise a great influence on the sound of a preceding syllable. We may compare the sound of a in the See also:English word " See also:mar." If we add e to the end of this word we get " See also:mare," in which the sound of the a is altogether changed, although the e is not itself pronounced in its proper place. The back-See also:action of these matra-vowels is technically known as umlaut or " epenthesis," and is the most striking feature of the Kashmiri language, the structure of which is unintelligible without a thorough knowledge of the system. In the following pages when a vowel is epenthetically affected by a matravowel the fact will be denoted by a dot placed under it, thus ksr". This is not the native system, according to which the See also:change is indicated sometimes by a diacritical See also:mark and sometimes by writing a different See also:letter. The changes of See also:pronunciation effected by each matra-vowel are shown in the following table. If natives employ a different letter to indicate the change the fact is mentioned. In other cases they content themselves with diacritical marks. When no entry is made, it should be understood that the sound of the vowel remains unaltered : bs Pronunciation when followed by E v -° 3 °10 y a -mats i-mats u-mats u-mats a a (adar, be ai (kar', pr. ii (as in Ger- o (like first o in a moist) (some kairi, made, See also:man: kar", " promote ' u thing like a plural masc.) pr. kur,made, kar", pr. kor,' u short Ger- of (German o; fem. sing.) made, masc. g man o) mar', pr. o (mar", pr. sing.) e o (Wier, pr. See also:moir', killed, mor, killed, a (mar", pr. o konar, make masc. plur.) fem. sing.) mar, written, o o n e - eyed) - ya (See also:lie, pr. mor", killed, (like a long - ly2iv, plas- masc. sing.) German o) ui (gur', pr. tered, See also:fern. yu (liv", pr. - guiri, horses) sing. lyuv, written - u' (guri, pr. - lyuv", plas-; i r, pr. gu'r', cow- - tered, masc. (See also:leda herds) - sing.) lidar, be yet- — See also:yii (tsgl", yu (nil", pr. See also:low) i (pher', pr. pr. tsyul, nyul, written — and written squeezed, nyul", See also:blue, u (hakh ar, pr. phiri, turned, fern. sing.) masc. sing.) hukhar, make masc. plur.) i (pher", pr. - dry) of (walk', pr. phir, written, - wo'thi, arisen, phir", turned, yu (tsel", pr. masc. plur.) fem. sing.) tsyul, See also:writ- ui (buiz', pr. ii (woth", pr. ten tsyul", bu'z', written wiith, arisen, squeezed, buz', heard. fern. sing.) masc. sing.) masc. plur.) ii (boz", pr. yu (pher", pr. buz, written, phyur, writ- buz", heard, ten phyur", fem. sing.) turned, masc. sing.) o (woth", pr. woth, arisen, masc. sing.) it (See also:bar', pr. Mg, written buz", heard, masc. sing.) The letters u and i, even when not u-matra or i-mats, often change a preceding long a to d, which is usually written o, and p respectively. Thus rawukh, they have lost, is pronounced rdwukh, and, in the See G. A. Grierson, " On Pronominal Suffixes in the Ka miri Languages," and " On the See also:Radical and Participial Tenses of the Modern Indo-Aryan Languages," in See also:Journal of the See also:Asiatic Society of See also:Bengal, vol. lxiv. (1895), pt. I. pp. 336 and 352. native character, is written rowukh. Similarly malls becomes malis (molls). The diphthong ai is pronounced o when it commences a word; thus, ailh, eight, is pronounced olh. When i and u commence a word they are pronounced yi and wu respectively. With one important exception, See also:common to all Pisaca languages, Kashmiri employs every consonant found in the Sanskrit alphabet. The exception is the series of aspirated consonants, gh, jh, (1h, dh and bh, which are wanting in Ksh., the corresponding unaspirated consonants being substituted for them. Thus, Skr. gholakas, but Ksh. gur", a See also:horse; Skr. bhavati, Ksh. bpi, he will be. There is a tendency to use dental letters where See also:Hindi employs cerebrals, as in Hindi ulh, Ksh. woth, arise. Cerebral letters are, however, owing to Sanskrit influence, on the whole better preserved in Ksh. than in the other Pisaca languages. The cerebral s has almost disappeared, s being employed instead. The only common word in which it is found is the See also:numeral .ah, six, which is merely a learned spelling for lair, due to the influence of the Skr. at. From the palatals c, ch, j, a new series of consonants has been formed, viz. ts, tsh (aspirate of is—i.e. ts+h, not t-f-sh), and z (as in English, not dz). Thus, Skr. coras, Ksh. See also:tsar, a thief ; Skr. chalayati, Ksh. 'shah, he will deceive; Skr. jalam, Ksh. sal, See also:water. The sibilant i, and occasionally s, are frequently represented by h. Thus, Skr. daia, Ksh. dah, ten; Skr. .liras, Ksh. his, a See also:head. We may compare with this the Persian word See also:Hind, India (compare the See also:Greek 'Isbas, an Indian), derived from the Skr. Sindhus, the river Indus. When such an h is.followed by a palatal letter the s returns; thus, from the See also:base See also:hii-, like this, we have the nominative masculine hilt', but the feminine See also:hale, and the abstract noun hiiyar, because'' and y are palatal letters.
The palatal letters i, e, u-matra and y often change a preceding consonant. The modifications will be seen from the following examples: See also:rat-, See also:night; nom. plur. rats"; woth, arise; wotsh", she arose: lad, build; laz°, she was built: ran, See also:cook; ran"', she was cooked; pat'', a tablet; Ag. sing. paci: kath-, a stalk; nom. plur. kache: See also:bad-, great; nom. plur. fem. baje: battik', a See also:duck; fem. bat4C': hakh", dry; fern. hock"; srag", cheap; srojyar, cheapness: wal", a See also:ring; fern. waj", a small ring; los, be weary ; lgs" or lots°, she was weary. These changes are each subject to certain rules. Cerebral letters (l, (h, d) change only before i, a or y, and not before u-matra. The others, on the contrary, do not change i, but do change before e, y or u-met
No word can end in an unaspirated surd consonant. If such a consonant falls at the end of a word it is aspirated. Thus, ak, one, becomes akh (but acc. akis) ; kal, a ra m, becomes kalh; and hat, a See also:hundred, hath.
D. Declension. If the above phonetic rules are See also:borne in mind, declension in Kashmiri is a fairly See also:simple See also:process. If See also:attention is not paid to them, the whole system at once becomes a See also: In the following pages it will be assumed that the reader is familiar with them. Nouns substantive and See also:adjective have two genders, a masculine and a feminine. Words referring to See also:males are masculine, and to See also:females are feminine. Inanimate things are sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine. Pronouns have three genders, arranged on a different principle. One gender refers to male living beings, another to See also:female living beings, and a third (or neuter) to all inanimate things whether they are grammatically masculine or feminine. Nouns ending in " are masculine, and most, but not all, of those ending in ", a or n are feminine. Of nouns ending in consonants, some are masculine, and some are feminine. No See also:rule can be formulated regarding these, except that all abstract nouns ending in ar (a very numerous class) are masculine. There are four declensions. The first consists of masculine nouns ending in a consonant, in a, e or " (very few of these last two). The second consists of the important class of masculine nouns in "; the third of feminine nouns in ' " or it (being the feminines corresponding to the masculine nouns of the second declension); and the See also:fourth of feminine nouns ending in ° e or a consonant. The noun possesses two numbers, a singular and a plural, and in each number there are, besides the nominative, three organic cases, the See also:accusative, the case of the See also:agent (see below, under " verbs "), and the See also:ablative. The accusative, when not definite, may also be the same in See also:form as the nominative. The following are the forms which a noun takes in each declension, the words chosen as examples being: First declension, tsar, a thief; second declension, mal", a father; third declension, maj'', a mother; fourth declension, (a) mal, a See also:garland, (b) rat-, night. First Second Third Fourth Declension Declension. Declension. Declension. i a. b Sing. : tsar mal"(pr.mdl) maj°(moj) mal See also:rath Nom. Acc. tsuras malis (molls) mare mali rats° (rots) Ag. 'See also:saran See also:mat' (moll') magi mall rats° (rots) Abl. tsura mali maji mali rats° (rots) Plur.: tsar mall (moil') maje See also:mala rats° (rots) Nom Acc. 'saran malen majen Indian rats°n (rotsiin) Ag. tsurau malyau majyau malau rats°v (rotsii.v) and Abl. The declension 4b is confined to certain nouns in t, th, d, is, h and 1, in which the final consonant is liable to change owing to a following u-matra. Other cases are formed (as in true Indo-Aryan languages) by the addition of postpositions, some of which are added to the accusative, while others are added to the ablative case. To the former are added mans, in; See also:kit', to or for; satin, with, and others. To the ablative are added satin, when it signifies " by means of "; putshy, for; See also:IMP, from, and others. For the genitive, masculine nouns in the singular, signifying animate beings, take See also:sand", and if they signify things without See also:life, take k". All masculine plural nouns and all feminine nouns whether singular or plural take hand'. Sand" and hand' are added to the accusative, which drops a final s, while k" is added to the ablative. Thus, tsura sand", of the thief ; mall sand', of the lather; sonak" (usually written sonuk"), of See also:gold (son, abl. sing. sona) ; tsuran nand', of thieves; See also:karen hand", of bracelets (second declension); male hand', of the mother; majen hand', of the mothers. Masculine proper names, however, take n' in the singular, as in Radhakr~nan" of Radhakrishna. These genitive terminations, and also the See also:dative termination kit', are adjectives, and agree with the governing noun in gender, number and case. Thus, tsura sand' neciv", the son of the thief ; tsura sand' neciv', by the son of the thief ; tsura sans" See also:hair', the daughter of the thief; kulik' See also:Lang, a bough of the See also:tree; .kulic" lgnd", a twig of the tree. Sand' has fem. sing. sans', masc. plur. sand', fern. plur. sanza. Similarly hind'. K' has fern. sing. masc. plur. k', fem. plur. se; nu, fem. sing. n, masc. plur. n', fern. plur. fig. Similarly for the dative we have the following forms: malis kit' See also:pan", water (masc.) for the father; malls kits" gav, a cow for the father; malls kit' rav, blankets (masc. plur.) for the father; malis kitsa pothe, books (fern. plur.) for the father. All these postpositions of the genitive and kit" of the dative are declined regularly as substantives, the masculine ones belonging to the second declension and the feminine ones to the third. Note that the feminine plural of sand" is sanza, not sanze, as we might expect;
so also feminine nouns in is", z
tsh", " and s".
Adjectives ending in " (second declension) form the feminine in °, with the usual changes of the preceding consonant. Thus tat", hot, fern. tats" (pronounced tuts). Other adjectives do not change for gender. All adjectives agree with the qualified noun in gender, number and case, the postposition, if any, being added to the latter word of the two. Take, for example. chat', See also: Possessive pronouns are employed instead of the genitive. Thus, myan", my; saw", our; cyan', thy; tuhand", your. For the third See also:person, we have sing. masc. suh, fern. soh, neut. tih; acc. sing. (masc. or fem.) 'antis or tas, neut. See also:lath; agent sing. masc. neut. See also:tam*, fern. tami. The plural is of common gender throughout. Nom. tim; acc. timan; ag. timau. The possessive pronoun is tasand", of him, of her; tamyuk', of it; tingnd", of them. The neuter gender is used for all things without life. Other pronouns are:—This: yih (See also:corn. gen.); acc. masc. fem. yimis, or nomis, neut, yith, noth; ag. masc. neut., yimi, nom', fem. yimi, nomi; nom. plur. yim, fern. yima, and so on. That (within sight): masc. neut. huh, fern. hob; See also:ace. masc. fern. humis or amis, neut. huth, and so on; nom. plur. masc hum. Who, masc. yus, fern. yossa, neut. yih; ace. masc. fern. yemis, yes, neut. yeth; ag. masc. neut. yem', fern. yemi; nom. plur. masc. yim, and so on. Who? masc. kus, fem. Vass-a, neut. kyah; ace. masc. fem. kamis, kas, neut. kath; ag. masc. neut. kam', fern. kami; nom. plur. masc. kam. Self, pang. Anyone, someone, Oh, kith, or khtshah, neut. ketshah. Kashmiri makes very See also:free use of pronominal suffixes, which are added to verbs to See also:supply the place of personal terminations. These represent almost any case, and are as follows: First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Sing. s kh, h none Nom. Acc. m th, y s Dat. m y s Ag. m th, y is See also:Nun none we none Nom. Other none we kh, h cases Before these the verbal terminations are often slightly changed for the sake of euphony, and, when necessary for, the pronunciation, the vowel a is inserted as a junction vowel. In this connexion we may mention another set of suffixes also commonly added to verbs, with an adverbial force. Of these na negatives the verb, as in chuh, he is; chum, he is not; a asks a question, as in chwa, is he? ti adds emphasis, as in chuti, he is indeed ; and tya asks a question with emphasis, as in chutya, is he indeed? Two or three suffixes may be employed together. as in kar", was made, kgru-m, was made by me, kar"-m-akh, thou wast made by me; kgr"-m-akh-a, wast thou made by me? The two kh suffixes become h when they are followed by a pronominal suffix commencing with a vowel, as in kar"-h-as (for kgr"-kh-as), I was made by them. E. Conjugation. As in the case of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, the conjugation of the verb is mainly participial. Three only of the old tenses, the present, the future and the imperative have survived, the first having become a future, and the second a past conditional. These three we may call radical tenses. The See also:rest, viz. the Kashmiri present, imperfect, past, See also:aorist, perfect and other past tenses are all participial. The verb substantive, which is also used as an See also:auxiliary verb, has two tenses, a present and a past. The former is made by adding the pronominal suffixes of the nominative to a base chu(h), and the latter by adding the same to a base as". Thus: Singular Plural Masculine Feminine . Masculine Feminine t chu-s, I am the-s, I am chih, we are cheh, we are 2 chu-kh, thou the-kh, thou chi-wa, you the-wa, you are 3 See also:art art are cheh, they are chuh, he is cheh, she is chih, they are t ¢su-s, I was as"-s, I was ¢s', we were See also:asa, we were 2 asu-kh, thou (is"-kh, thou as'-wa, you asa-wa, you 3 wast wast were were 4s", he was cis", she was ¢s', they &a, they were were As for the finite verb, the modern future (old present), and the past conditional (old future) do not change for gender, and do not employ suffixes, but retain See also:relics of the old personal terminations of the tenses from which they are derived, They are thus conjugated, taking the verbal See also:root kar, as the typical verb. Future, I shall make, &c. Past Conditional, (if) I had made, &c. Singular Plural _ Singular Plural i kara karav karand karandv 2 karakh kariv karandkh kar'hiv 3 kari karan karihe karandn For the imperative we have and person singular, kar, plur. kariv; third person singular and plural karan. Many of the above forms will be intelligible from a See also:consideration of the closely allied Sanskrit, although they are not derived from that language; but some (e.g. those of the second person singular) can only be explained by the See also:analogy of the Iranian and of the Pisaca languages. The present participle is formed by adding an to the root; thus, karan, making. It does not change for gender. From this we get a present and an imperfect, formed by adding respectively the present and past tenses of the auxiliary verb. Thus, karan thus, I (masculine) am making, I make; karan cites, I (feminine) am making, I make; karan 'See also:sus, I (masculine) was making; and so on. There are several past participles, all of which are liable to change for gender, and are utilized in conjugation. We have: Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Weak past participle kar" kar" kar' kare Strong past participle karyov karyeya karyey karyeya Pluperfect participle karyav karyeya kareyey karyeya See also:Compound past parti- kgr"mat" kar"mats" kgr'm8ti karematsa ciple In the strong past participle and the pluperfect participle, the final v and y (like the final h of chuh quoted above) are not parts of the original words, but are only added for the sake of euphony. The true words are katyo, karye, karya and karyeye. There are three conjugations. The first includes all transitive verbs. These have both the weak and the strong past participles. The second conjugation consists of sixty-six common intransitive verbs, which also have both of these participles. The third conjugation consists of the remaining intransitive verbs. These have only the strong past participle. The weak past participle in the first two conjugations refers to something which has lately happened, and is used to form an immediate past tense. The strong past participle is more indefinite, and is employed to form a tense corresponding to the Greek aorist. The pluperfect participle refers to something whichhappened a long time ago, and is used to form the past tense of narration. As the third conjugation has no weak past participle, the strong past participle is employed to make the immediate past, and the pluperfect participle is employed to make the aorist past, while the new pluperfect participle is formed to make the tense of narration. Thus, from the root wuph, See also:fly (third conjugation) we have wuphyov, he flew just now, while karyov (first conjugation) means " he was made at some indefinite time "; wuphyav, he flew at some indefinite time, but karyav, he was made a long time ago; finally, the new participle of the third conjugation, wuphiyav, he flew a long time ago. The corresponding tenses are formed by adding pronominal suffixes to the weak, the strong, or the pluperfect participle. In the last two the final v and y, being no longer required by euphony, are dropped. In the case of transitive verbs the participles are passive by derivation and in signification, and hence the suffix indicating the subject must be in the agent case. Thus kar" means " made." For " I made " we must say " made by me," kgru-m ; for " thou madest," karu-th, made by thee, and so on. If the thing made is feminine the participle must be feminine, and similarly if it is plural it must be plural. Thus, kgru-m, I made him; kgr"-m, I made her; kgri-m, I made them (masculine) ; and kare-m, I made them (feminine). Similarly from the other two participles we have karya-m, I made him; karyeya-m, I made her; karya-m, I made him (a long time ago). The past participles of intransitive verbs are not passive, and hence the suffix indicating the subject must be in the nominative form. Thus tsal", escaped (second conjugation) ; tsalu-s, escaped-I, I (masculine) escaped; tsaj"-s, I (feminine) escaped, and so on. Similarly for the third conjugation, wuphyov, flew; wuphyo-s, I (masculine) flew; wuphyeya-s, I (feminine) flew, &c. As explained above, these suffixes may be piled one on another. As a further example we may give kar", made; karu-n, made by him, he made; karu-n-as, made by him I, he made me, or (as -s also means " for him ") he made for him; kgru-n-as-a, did he make me? or, did he make for him? and so on. Tenses corresponding to the English perfect and pluperfect are formed by conjugating the auxiliary verb, adding the appropriate suffixes, with the compound past participle. Thus kgr"mat" chun-as, made am-by-him-I, he has made me; tsgl"mat" chu-kh, escaped art thou, thou hast escaped; wuphyomgt" chu-s, flown am-I, I have flown. Similarly for the pluperfect, kgr"mgt" asu-n-as, made was-by-him-I, he had made me, and so on. Many verbs have irregular past participles. Thus mar, See also:die, has mud"; di, give, has dot"; khi, eat, has khyauv for its weak, and kheyov for its strong participle, while ni, take, has nyuv and niyov, respectively. Others must be learnt from the See also:regular grammars. The See also:infinitive is formed by adding -un to the root; thus kar-un, to make. It is declined like a somewhat irregular noun of the first declension, its accusative being karanas. There are three forms of the noun of agency, of which typical examples are kar-awun", kar-an-wal", and kar-an-grakh, a maker. The passive is formed by conjugating the verb yi, come, with the ablative of the infinitive. Thus, karana yiwan chuh, it is coming by making, or into making, i.e. it is being made. A root is made active or causal by adding -anaw, -eiw, or -"raw. Thus, kar-anaw, cause to make; kumal, be See also:tender, kumal-aw, make tender; kal, be dumb, kgl-"raw, make dumb. Some verbs take one form and some another, and there are numerous irregularities, especially in the case of the last. F. Indeclinables. Indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections) must be learnt from the See also:dictionary. The number of interjections is very large, and they are distinguished by See also:minute rules depending on the gender of the person addressed and the exact amount of respect due to him.
Literature.—Kashmiri possesses a somewhat extensive literature, which has been very little studied. The missionary See also: Mahmud Gaml's poem is valuable as an example of the Kashmiri used by Mussulmans. For Hindu literature, we may quote a See also:history of See also:Krishna by Dinanatha. The very popular Lalla-vakya, a poem on Saiva philosopy by a woman named Lalladevi, is said to be the See also:oldest See also:work in the language which has survived. Another esteemed work is the See also:Siva Parinaya of Km a Rajanaka, a living author. These and other books which have been studied by the present writer have little independent value, being imitations of Sanskrit literature. Nothing is known about the See also:dates of most of the authors. The only important See also:text which has been published is Burkhard's edition, with a partial See also:translation, cf Mahmud Gami's " Yusuf and Zulaikha " in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft for 1895 and 1899. The text of the Siva Parinaya, edited by G. A. Grierson, is in course of publication by the Asiatic Society of Bengal. (G. A. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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