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LIGURIA

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Originally appearing in Volume V16, Page 682 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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LIGURIA , a See also:

modern territorial See also:division of See also:Italy, lying between the Ligurian See also:Alps and the See also:Apennines on the N., and the Mediterranean on the S. and extending from the frontier of See also:France on the W. to the Gulf of See also:Spezia on the E. Its See also:northern limits See also:touch See also:Piedmont and See also:Lombardy, while See also:Emilia and See also:Tuscany fringe its eastern See also:borders, the dividing See also:line following as a See also:rule the summits of the mountains. Its See also:area is 2037 sq. m. The railway from See also:Pisa skirts the entire See also:coast of the territory, throwing off lines to See also:Parma from See also:Sarzana and Spezia, to See also:Milan and See also:Turin from See also:Genoa, and to Turin from See also:Savona, and there is a line from See also:Ventimiglia to See also:Cuneo and Turin by the See also:Col di Tenda. Liguria embraces the two provinces of Genoa and See also:Porto Maurizio (Imperia), which once formed the See also:republic of Genoa. Its sparsely-peopled mountains slope gently northward towards the Po, descending, however, abruptly into the See also:sea at several points; the narrow coast See also:district, famous under the name of the See also:Riviera (q.v.), is divided at Genoa into the Riviera di Ponente towards France, and the Riviera di Levante towards the See also:east. Its See also:principal products are See also:wheat, See also:maize, See also:wine, oranges, lemons, fruits, See also:olives and potatoes, though the See also:olive groves are being rapidly supplanted by See also:flower-gardens, which grow See also:flowers for export. See also:Copper and See also:iron See also:pyrites are See also:mined. The principal See also:industries are iron-See also:works, foundries, iron See also:shipbuilding, See also:engineering, and See also:boiler works (Genoa, Spezia, See also:Sampierdarena, Sestri Ponente, &c.), the See also:production of cocoons, and the manufactureof cottons and woollens. Owing to the ssh~,eltered situation and the mildness of their See also:climate, many of 't[e coast towns are chosen by thousands of foreigners for See also:winter See also:residence, while the Italians frequent them in summer for sea-bathing. The inhabitants have always been adventurous See also:seamen—See also:Columbus and Amerigo See also:Vespucci were Genoese,—and the coast has several See also:good harbours, Genoa, Spezia and Savona being the best. In educational and See also:general development, Liguria stands high among the regions of Italy.

The populations of the respective provinces and their See also:

chief towns are, according to the See also:census of 19or (popolazione residente or legale)—See also:province of Genoa, pop. 931,156; number of communes 197; chief towns—Genoa (219,507), Spezia (66,263), Savona (38,648), Sampierdarena (34,084), Sestri Ponente (17,225)., Province of Porto Maurizio, pop. 144,604, number of communes io6; chief towns—Porto Maurizio (7207), S. Remo (20,027), Ventimiglia (11,468), Oneglia (8252), See also:Total for Liguria, 1,075,760. The Ligurian coast became gradually subject to the See also:Romans, and the road along it must have been correspondingly prolonged: up to the end of the Hannibalic See also:war the See also:regular starting-point for See also:Spain by sea was Pisae, in 195 B.C. it was the See also:harbour of See also:Luna (Gulf of Spezia),' though Genua must have become See also:Roman a little before this See also:time, while, in 137 B.C., C. Hostilius Mancinus marched as far as See also:Portus Herculis (Villafranca), and in 121 B.C. the province of Gallia Narbonensis was formed and the coast-road prolonged to the See also:Pyrenees. In 14 B.C. See also:Augustus restored the whole road from Placentia to Dertona (Via See also:Postumia), and thence to Vada Sabatia (Via Aemilia [2]) and the See also:River Varus (Vat), so that it thenceforth took the name of Via Julia See also:Augusta (see AEMILIA, VIA [2]). The other chief roads of Liguria were the portion of the Via Postumia from Dertona to Genua, a road from above Vada through Augusta Bagiennorum and See also:Pollentia to Augusta Taurinorum, and another from Augusta Taurinorum to Hasta and See also:Valentia. The names of the villages—See also:Quarto, Quinto, &c.—on the See also:south-east See also:side and Pontedecimo on the See also:north of Genoa allude to their distance along the Roman roads. The Roman Liguria, forming the ninth region of Augustus, was thus far more extensive than the modern, including the See also:country on the north slopes of the Apennines and Maritime Alps between the See also:Trebia and the Po, and extending a little beyond Albintimilium. On the See also:west Augustus formed the provinces of the Alpes Maritimae and the Alpes Cottiae.

Towns of importance were few, owing to the nature of the country. Dertona was the only See also:

colony, and See also:Alba Pompeia, Augusta Bagiennorum, Pollentia, Hasta, See also:Aquae Statiellae, and Genua may also be mentioned; but the Ligurians dwelt entirely in villages, and were organized as tribes. The mountainous See also:character of Liguria made the spread of culture difficult; it remained a See also:forest district, producing See also:timber, See also:cattle, ponies, mules, See also:sheep, &c. Oil and wine had to be imported, and when the cultivation of the olive began is not known. The arrangement made by Augustus lasted until the time of See also:Diocletian, when the two Alpine provinces were abolished, and the See also:watershed became the boundary between Italy and See also:Gaul. At this time we find the name Liguria extended as far as Milan, while in the 6th See also:century the old Liguria was separated from it, and under the See also:Lombards formed the fifth See also:Italian province under the name of Alpes Cottiae. In the See also:middle ages the See also:ancient Liguria north of the Apennines See also:fell to Piedmont and Lombardy, while that to the south, with the coast See also:strip, belonged to the republic of Genoa. (T. As.) See also:Archaeology and See also:Philology.—It is clear that in earlier times the Ligurians occupied a much more extensive area than the Augustan region; for instance See also:Strabo (i. 2, 92; iv. 1, 7) gives earlier authorities for their See also:possession of the See also:land on which the See also:Greek colony of Massalia (See also:Marseilles) was founded; and See also:Thucydides (vi. 2) speaks of a See also:settlement of Ligurians in Spain who expelled the See also:Sicani thence.

Southward their domain extended as far as Pisa on the coast of See also:

Etruria and See also:Arretium inland in. the ' The dividing line between Liguria and Etruria was the See also:lower course of the river Macra (Magra), so that, while the harbour of Luna was in the former, Luna itself was in the latter. time of See also:Polybius (ii. 6), and a somewhat vague reference in See also:Lycophron (line 1351) to the Ligurians as enemies of the founders of Agylla (i.e. See also:Caere) suggests that they once occupied even a larger See also:tract to the south. See also:Seneca (Cons ad Helv. vii. g), states that the See also:population of See also:Corsica was partly Ligurian. By combining traditions recorded by See also:Dionysius (i. 22; )(iv. 37) and others (e.g. Serv. ad. Aen. xi. 317) as having been held by See also:Cato the See also:Censor and by See also:Philistus of See also:Syracuse (385 B.C.) respectively, See also:Professor Ridgeway (Who were the Romans? See also:London, 1908, p.

3) decides in favour of identifying the Ligurians with a tribe called the See also:

Aborigines who occupy a large See also:place in the See also:early traditions of Italy (see Dionysius i. cc. to ff.) ; and who may at all events be regarded with reasonable certainty as constituting an early pre-Roman and pre-Tuscan stratum in the population of Central Italy (see See also:LATIUM). For a discussion of this question see See also:Volsci. Ridgeway holds that the See also:language of the Ligurians, as well as their antiquities, was identical with that of the early Latins, and with that of the Plebeians of See also:Rome (as contrasted with that of the Patrician or See also:Sabine See also:element), see RoME: See also:History (ad. init.). The archaeological side of this important question is difficult. Although See also:great progress has been made with the study of the different strata of remains in prehistoric Italy and of those of Liguria itself (see for instance the excellent Introduction d l'histoire romaine by Basile Modestov (See also:Paris, 1907, p. 122 ff.) and W. Ridgeway's Early See also:Age of See also:Greece, p. 240 ff.) no general agreement has been reached among archaeologists as to the particular races who are to be identified as the authors of the early strata, earlier, that is, than that stratum which represents the Etruscans. On the linguistic side some fairly certain conclusions have been reached. D'See also:Arbois de Jubainville (See also:Les Premiers habitants de l'See also:Europe, ed. 2, Paris, 1889–1894) pointed out the great frequency of the suffix -asco- (and -usco-) both in ancient and in modern Ligurian districts, and as far north as Caranusca near See also:Metz, and also in the eastern Alps and in Spain. He pointed out also, what can scarcely be doubted, that the great See also:mass of the Ligurian proper names (e.g. the streams Vinelasca, Porcobera, Comberanea; See also:mons Tuledo; Venascum), have a definite Indo-See also:European character.

Farther Karl Miillenhof in vol. iii. of his Deutsche Alterthumskunde (See also:

Berlin, 1898) made a careful collection of the proper names reserved in Latin See also:inscriptions of the Ligurian districts, such as the Tabula Genuatium (C.I.L. i. 99) of 117 B.C. A See also:complete collection of all Ligurian place and See also:personal names known has been made by S. See also:Elizabeth See also:Jackson, B.A., and the collection is to be combined with the inscriptional remains of the district in The Pre-See also:Italic Dialects, edited by R. S. See also:Conway (see The Proceedings of the See also:British See also:Academy). Following Kretschmer See also:Kuhn's Zeitschrift (xxxviii. 97), who discussed several inscriptions found near Ornavasso (Lago See also:Maggiore) and concluded that they showed an Indo-European language, Conway, though holding that the inscriptions are more See also:Celtic than Ligurian, pointed out strong See also:evidence in the ancient place names of Liguria that the language spoken there in the See also:period which preceded the Roman See also:conquest was Indo-European, and belonged to a definite See also:group, namely, See also:languages which preserved the See also:original q as Latin did, and did not convert it into p as did the Umbro-Safine tribes. The same is probably true of See also:Venetia (see See also:VENETI), and of an Indo-European language preserved on inscriptions found at See also:Coligny and commonly referred to the See also:Sequani (see Comptes Rendus de l'Ac. d'Insc., Paris, 1897, 703; E. B. See also:Nicholson, Sequanian, London, 1898; Thurneysen, Zeitschr. f. Kelt.

Phil., 1899, 523). Typically Ligurian names are Quiamelius, which contains the characteristic Ligurian word melo- " See also:

stone " as in mons Blustiemelus (C.I.L. v. 7749), Intimelium and the modern Vintimiglia. The tribal names Soliceli, Stoniceli, clearly contain the same element as See also:Lat. See also:aequi-coli (dwellers on the See also:plain), sati-cola, &c., namely quel-, cf. Lat. in- quil-inus, colo, Gr. 7roMo', siXXesrOat. And it should be added that the Ligurian ethnica show the prevailing use of the two suffixes - co - and - ati-, which there is See also:reason to refer to the pre-Roman stratum of population in Italy (see VoLscI). Besides the authorities already cited the student may be referred to C. See also:Pauli, Altitalische Studien, vol. i., especially for the See also:alphabet of the inst.; W. Ridgeway, Who were the Romans? (followed by the abstract of a See also:paper by the See also:present writer) in The Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. iii. p. 42 ; and to W.

H. See also:

Hall's, The Romans on the Riviera and the See also:Rhone (London, 1898) lssel's La Liguria geologica e preistorica (Genoa, 1892). A further batch of Celto-Ligurian inscriptions from Giubiasco near See also:Bellinzona (See also:Canton See also:Ticino) is published by G. Herbig, in the Anzeiger f. Schweizer. Altertumskunde, vii. (1905–1906), p. 187; and one of the same class by Elia Lattes, Di un' Iscriz. ante-See also:Romana trovata a Carcegna sul Lago d' See also:Arta (Atli d. r. Accad. d. Scienze di Torino, xxxix., Feb, 1904). (R. S.

C.) LI HUNG CHANG (1823—1901), See also:

Chinese statesman, was See also:born on the 16th of See also:February 1823 at Hofei, in Ngan-hui. From his earliest youth he showed marked ability, and when quite See also:young he took his See also:bachelor degree In 1847 he became a Tsin-shi, or See also:graduate of the highest See also:order, and two years later was admitted into the imperial Hanlin See also:college. Shortly after this the central provinces of the See also:empire were invaded by the Taiping rebels, and in See also:defence of his native district he raised a See also:regiment of See also:militia, with which he did such good service to the imperial cause that he attracted the See also:attention of See also:Tseng Kuo-See also:fan, the generalissimo in command. In 1859 he was transferred to the province of Fu-kien, where he was given the See also:rank of taotai, or See also:intendant of See also:circuit. But Tseng had not forgotten him, and at his See also:request Li was recalled to take See also:part against the rebels. He found his cause supported by the " Ever Victorious See also:Army," which, after having been raised by an See also:American named See also:Ward, was finally placed under the command of See also:Charles See also:George See also:Gordon. With this support Li gained numerous victories leading to the surrender of Suchow and the See also:capture of See also:Nanking. For these exploits he was made See also:governor of Kiangsu, was decorated with a yellow jacket, and was created an See also:earl. An incident connected with the surrender of Suchow, however, See also:left a lasting stain upon his character. By an arrangement with Gordon the See also:rebel wangs, or princes, yielded Nanking on See also:condition that their lives should be spared. In spite of the assurance given them by Gordon, Li ordered their instant See also:execution. This See also:breach of faith so aroused Gordon's indignation that he seized a See also:rifle, intending to shoot the falsifier of his word, and would have done so had not Li saved himself by See also:flight.

On the suppression of the See also:

rebellion (1864) Li took up his duties as governor, but was not See also:long allowed to remain in See also:civil See also:life. On the outbreak of the rebellion of the Nienfei, a remnant of the Taipings, in Ho-nan and Shan-tung (1866) he was ordered again to take the See also:field, and after some misadventures he succeeded in suppressing the See also:movement. A See also:year later he was appointed See also:viceroy of Hukwang, where he remained until 1870, when the See also:Tientsin See also:massacre necessitated his See also:transfer to the See also:scene of the See also:outrage. He was, as a natural consequence, appointed to the viceroyalty of the See also:metropolitan province of Chihli, and justified his See also:appointment by the See also:energy with which he suppressed all attempts to keep alive the See also:anti-See also:foreign sentiment among the See also:people. For his services he was made imperial See also:tutor and member of the See also:grand See also:council of the empire, and was decorated with many-eyed peacocks' feathers. To his duties as viceroy were added those of the See also:superintendent of See also:trade, and from that time until his See also:death, with a few intervals of retirement, he practically conducted the foreign policy of See also:China. He concluded the Chifu See also:convention with See also:Sir See also:Thomas See also:Wade (1876), and thus ended the difficulty caused by the See also:murder of Mr Margary in Yunnan; he arranged See also:treaties with See also:Peru and See also:Japan, and he actively directed the Chinese policy in See also:Korea. On the death of the See also:emperor T'ungchi in 1875 he, by suddenly introducing a large armed force into the See also:capital, effected a coup d'etat by which the emperor Kwang Su was put on the See also:throne under the tutelage of the two See also:dowager empresses; and in 1886, on the conclusion of the Franco-Chinese war, he arranged a treaty with France. Li was always strongly impressed with the See also:necessity of strengthening the empire, and when viceroy of Chihli he raised a large well-drilled and well-armed force, and spent vast sums both in fortifying See also:Port See also:Arthur and the Taku forts and in increasing the See also:navy. For years he had watched the successful reforms effected in Japan and had a well-founded dread of coming into conflict with that empire. But in 1894 events forced his See also:hand, and in consequence of a dispute as to the relative See also:influence of China and Japan in Korea, war See also:broke out. The result proved the See also:wisdom of Li's fears.

Both on land and at sea the Chinese forces were ignominiously routed, and in 1895, on the fall of Wei-See also:

hai-wei, the emperor sued for See also:peace. With characteristic subterfuge his advisers suggested as peace envoys persons whom the See also:mikado very properly and promptly refused to accept, and finally Li was sent to represent his imperial See also:master at the council assembled at Shimonoseki. With great See also:diplomatic skill Li pleaded the cause of his country, but finally had to agree to the cession of See also:Formosa, the See also:Pescadores, and the Liaotung See also:peninsula to the conquerors, and to the' See also:payment of an See also:indemnity of 200,000,000 taels. By a subsequent arrangement the Liaotung peninsula was restored to China, in See also:exchange for an increased indemnity. During the peace discussions at Shimonoseki, as Li was being See also:borne through the narrow streets of the See also:town, a would-be See also:assassin fired a See also:pistol point-See also:blank in his See also:face. The See also:wound inflicted was not serious, and after a few days' See also:rest Li was able to take up again the suspended negotiations. In 1896 he represented the emperor at the See also:coronation of the See also:tsar, and visited See also:Germany, See also:Belgium, France, See also:England, and the See also:United States of See also:America. For some time after his return to China his services were demanded at See also:Peking, where he was virtually constituted See also:minister for foreign affairs; but in 1900 he was transferred to Canton as viceroy of the two Kwangs. The Boxer movement, however, induced the emperor to recall him to the capital, and it was mainly owing to his exertions that, at the conclusion of the outbreak, a See also:protocol of peace was signed in See also:September 1901. For many months his See also:health had been failing, and he died on the 7th of See also:November 1901. He left three sons and one daughter. (R.

K.

End of Article: LIGURIA

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