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JOINERY
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V15,
Page 483
of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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JOINERY , one of the useful arts which contribute to the comfort and convenience of See also: man. As the arts of joinery and See also:carpentry are often followed by the same individual, it appears natural to conclude that the same principles are See also:common to both, but a closer examination leads to a different conclusion. The See also:art of carpentry is directed almost wholly to the support of See also:weight or pressure, and therefore its principles must be sought in the See also:mechanical sciences. In a See also:building it includes all the rough See also:timber See also:work necessary for support, See also:division or connexion, and its proper See also:object is to give firmness and stability. The art of joinery has for its object the addition in a building of all the fixed woodwork necessary for convenience or See also:ornament. The joiner's See also:works are in many cases of a complicated nature, and often require to be executed in an expensive material, therefore joinery requires much skill in that See also:part of geometrical See also:science which treats of the See also:projection and description of lines, surfaces and solids, as well as an intimate knowledge of the structure and nature of See also:wood. A man may be a See also:good See also:carpenter without being a joiner at all, but he cannot be a joiner without being competent, at least, to supervise all the operations required in carpentry. The rough labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree unfit to produce that accurate and neat workmanship which is expected from a See also:modern joiner, but it is no less true that the See also:habit of neatness and the See also:great precision of the joiner make him a much slower workman than the man practised in works of carpentry. In carpentry framing owes its strength mainly to the See also:form and position of its parts, but in joinery the strength of a See also:frame depends to a larger extent upon the strength of the obtainable on the See also:Continent, enables the cost of See also:production to joinings. The importance of fitting the See also:joints together as accurately as possible is therefore obvious. It is very desirable that a joiner shall be a See also:quick workman, but it is still more so that he shall be a good one, and that he should join his materials with firmness and accuracy. It is also of the greatest importance that the work when thus put together shall be constructed of such See also:sound and dry materials, and on such principles, that the whole shall See also:bear the various changes of temperature and of moisture and dryness, so that the least possible shrinkage or swelling shall take See also:place; but See also:provision must be made so that, if swelling or shrinking does occur, no damage shall be done to the work.In See also: early times every part was See also:rude, and jointed in the most artless manner. The first dawnings of the art of modern joinery appear in the thrones, stalls, pulpits and screens of early See also:Gothic cathedrals and churches, but even in these it is indebted to the See also:carver for everything that is worthy of regard. With the revival of classic art, however, great changes took place in every sort of construction. Forms began to be introduced in See also:architecture which could not be executed at a moderate expense without the aid of new principles, and these principles were discovered and published by See also:practical joiners. These authors, with their scanty geometrical knowledge, had but confused notions of these principles, and accordingly their descriptions are often obscure, and sometimes erroneous. The framed See also:wainscot of small panels gave way to the large bolection moulded panelling. Doors which were formerly heavily framed and hung on massive posts or in jambs of cut See also:
The joiner's work for a See also:
Owing to this shrink-See also: age certain joints and details, hereinafter described and illustrated, are in common use for the purpose of counteracting the See also:bad effect this See also:movement would otherwise have upon all joinery work. The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery are the different See also:species of See also:North See also:European and North See also:American See also:pine, oak, See also:teak and See also:mahogany (see TIMBER). The greater part of See also:English joiners' work is executed in the northern pine exported from the Baltic countries. Hence the joiner obtains the planks, deals, battens and strips from which he shapes his work. The timber reaches the workman from the sawmills in a See also:size convenient for the use he intends, considerable time and labour being saved in this way. A See also:log of timber sawn to a square See also:section is termed a balk. In section it may range from I to 1-1 ft. square. Planks are formed by sawing the balk into sections from II to 18 in. wide and 3 to 6 in. thick, and the See also:term See also:deal is applied to sawn stuff 9 in. wide and 2 to 41 in. thick. Battens are boards See also:running not more than 3 in. thick and 4 to 7 in. wide. A See also:strip is See also:riot thicker than I z in., the width being about 4 in. Joints. See also:Side joints (fig.I) are used for joining boards together edge to edge, and are widely employed in flooring. In the square joint the edges of the boards are carefully shot, the two edges to be joined brought together with glue applied hot, and the boards tightly clamped and See also: left to dry, when the See also:surface is cleaned off with the smoothing See also:plane. A joint in See also:general use for joining up boards for fascias, panels, linings, window-boards, and other work of a like nature is formed in a similar manner to the above, but with a See also:cross-grained See also:tongue inserted, thereby greatly strengthening the work at an otherwise naturally weak point. This is termed a cross-tongued and glued joint. The dowelled joint is a square glued joint strengthened with hard wood or See also:iron dowels inserted in the edge of each See also:board to a See also:depth of about ; in. and placed about i8 in. apart. The matched joint is shown in two forms, beaded and jointed. Matched boarding is frequently used as a less expensive substitute for panelled framing. Although of course in See also:appearance it cannot compare with the latter, it has a somewhat ornamental appearance, and the moulded joints allow shrinkage to take place without detriment to the appearance of the work. The rebated joint is used in the See also:meeting styles of casements and folding doors, and it is useful in excluding See also:draughts and preventing observation through the joint. Of the See also:angle joints (fig. 2) in common use by the joiner the following are the most important. The See also:mitre is shown in the See also:drawing, and is so well known as to need little description.Although See also: simple, it needs a practised and accurate hand for its proper See also:execution. The common mitre is essentially weak unless reinforced with blocks glued into the angle at the back of it, and is therefore often strengthened with a See also:feather of wood or iron. Other See also:variations of the mitre are the mitre and See also:butt, used where the pieces connected are of unequal thickness; the mitre and See also:rebate, with a square section which facilitates nailing or screwing; the mitre rebate and feather, similar to the latter, with a feather giving additional strength to the joint; and the mitre groove and tongue, having a tongue worked on the material itself in place of the feather of the last-named joint. The last two methods Square Rebated fildlllgYA .Grooved & tongued A%//1A ebated I ooved, tongued Joint Dowelled NIN/M .4 grim , 4 Filleted Ploughed & tongued are used in the best work, and, carefully worked and glued, with the assistance of angle blocks glued at the back, obviate the neces- sity of See also:face screws or nails. The keyed mitre consists of a simple mitre joint, which after being glued up has a number of pairs of saw cuts made across the angle, into which are fitted and glued thin triangular slips of hard wood, or as an alternative, pieces of See also:brass or other See also:metal. Other forms of angle joints are based on the rebate with a See also:bead worked on in such a position as to hide any bad effects caused by the joint opening by shrinkage. They may be secured either by nailing or screwing, or by glued angle blocks. The dovetail is a most important joint; its most usual forms are illustrated in fig. 3. The mitre dovetail is used in the best work. It will be seen that the dovetail is a tenon, shaped as a See also:wedge, and it is this distinguishing feature which gives it great strength irrespective of glue or screws. It is invaluable in framing together joiners' fittings; its use in drawers especially provides a good example of its purpose and structure.Warping in Wide Boards.—It is necessary to prevent the tendency to warp, twist and split, which boards of great width, or several boards glued together edge to edge, naturally possess. On the other hand, swelling and shrinking due to changes in the humidity of the See also: atmosphere must not be checked, or the result will be disastrous. To effect this end various simple devices are available. The direction Common dovetail. Lapped dovetail. FIG. 3.—Dovetails. of the See also:annular rings in alternate boards may be reversed, and when the boards have been carefully jointed with See also:tongues or dowels and glued up, a hard-wood tapering See also:
This method is very effective and neat in appearance, and is specially suitable when a smooth surface is desired on both sides of the work. See also: Mouldings are used in joinery to relieve See also:plain surfaces by the contrasts of light and shade formed by their members, and to ornament or accentuate those particular portions which the designer may wish to bring into prominence. Great skill and discrimination are required in designing and applying mouldings, but that See also:matter falls to the qualified designer and is perhaps outside the See also:province of the practical workman, whose work is to carry out; in an accurate and finished manner the ideas of the draughtsman. The See also:character of a moulding is greatly affected by the nature and appearance of the wood in which it is worked. A section suitable for a hard regularly grained wood, such as mahogany, would probably look insignificant if worked in a softer wood with pronounced markings. Mouldings worked on See also:woods of the former type may consist of small and delicate members; woods of the latter class require bold treatment. The mouldings of joinery, as well as of all other moulded work used in connexion with a building, are usually worked in accordancewith full-sized detail drawings prepared by the architect, and are designed by him to conform with the See also:style and class of building. There are, however, a number of moulded forms in common use which have particular names; sections are shown of many of these in fig. 5. Most of them occur in the classic architecture of both Greeks and See also:Romans. A striking distinction, how-ever, existed in the mouldings of these two peoples; the curves of the See also:Greek mouldings were either de-rived from conic sections or See also:drawn in freehand, while in typical See also:Roman work the curved components were segments of a circle. Numerous examples of the use of these forms occur in ordinary joinery work, and may be recognized on reference to the illustrations, which will be easily understood without further description.FIG. 5.—Mouldings. Mouldings may be either See also: stuck or planted on. A stuck moulding is worked directly on to the framing it is used to ornament; a planted moulding is separately worked and fixed in position with nails or screws. Beads and other small mouldings should always be stuck; larger ones are usually planted on. In the See also:case of mouldings planted on panelled work, the nails should be driven through the moulding into the style or See also:rail of the framing, and on no See also:account into the See also:panel. By adopting the former method the panel is See also:free to shrink—as it undoubtedly" will do—without altering the good appearance of the work, but should the moulding be fixed to the panel it will, when the latter shrinks, be pulled out of place, leaving an unsightly See also:gap between it and the framing. Flooring.—When the bricklayer, See also:mason and carpenter have prepared the carcase of a building for the joiner, one of the first operations is that of laying the floor boards. They should have been stacked under See also:cover on the site for some considerable time, in See also:order to be thoroughly well seasoned when the time to use them arrives. The work of laying should take place in warm dry See also:weather. The joints of flooring laid in See also:winter time or during wet weather are sure to open in the following summer, however tightly they may be cramped up during the See also:process of laying. An additional expense will then be incurred by the See also:necessity of filling in the opened joints with wood slips glued and driven into place.Boards of narrow width are better and more expensive than wide ones. They may be of various woods, the kinds generally preferred, on account of their low See also: comparative cost and ease of working, being yellow deal and white deal. White deal or spruce is an inferior wood, but is frequently used with good results for the floors of less important apartments. A better floor is obtained with yellow deal, which, when of good quality and well seasoned, is lasting and wears well. For floors where a See also:fine appearance is desired, or which will be subjected to heavy See also:wear, some harder and tougher material, such as See also:pitch pine, oak, ash, See also:maple or teak, should be laid. These woods are capable of taking a fine See also:polish and, finished in this way, form a beautiful as well as a durable floor. Many of the side joints illustrated in f'g. I are applied to flooring boards, which, however, are not usually glued up. The See also:heart side of the board should be placed downwards so that in drying the tendency will be for the edges to See also:press more tightly to the joists instead of See also:curling upwards. The square joint should be used only on ground floors; if it is used for the upper rooms, dust and See also:water will drop through the crevices and damage the See also:ceiling beneath. Dowelled joints are open to the same objection. One of the best and most economical methods is the ploughed and tongued joint.The tongue may be of hard wood or iron, preferably the latter, which is stronger and occupies very narrow grooves. The tongue should be placed as near the bottom of the board as is practicable, leaving as much wearing material as possible. Two varieties of See also: secret joints are shown in fig. i.—the splayed, rebated, grooved and tongued, and the rebated, grooved and tongued. Owing to the See also:waste of material in forming these joints and the extra labour involved in laying the boards, they are costly and are only used when it is required that no heads of nails or screws should appear on the surface. The heading joints of flooring are often specified to be splayed or bevelled, but it is far better to rebate them. Wood See also:block floors are much used, and are exceedingly solid. The blocks are laid directly on a smoothed See also:concrete See also:bed or floor in a See also:damp-See also:proof See also:mastic having See also:bitumen as its See also:base; this fulfils the See also:double purpose of preventing the wood from rotting, and securing the blocks in their places. To check any inclination to warp and rise, however, the edges of the blocks in the better class of floors are connected by dowels of wood or metal, or by a tongued joint. The blocks may be from I to 3 in. thick, and are usually 9 or 12 in. See also:long by 3 in. wide. Parquet floors are made of hard woods of various kinds, laid in patterns on a deal sub-floor, and may be of any thickness from i to Keyed mitre Mitre or Secret dovetail. Tapering Hardwood battep Iron See also:rod. Ivey. wnn (amonana.(n)aiota I4 in. Great care should be taken in laying the sub-floor, especially for the thinner parquet. The boards should be in narrow widths of well-seasoned stuff and well nailed, for any movement in'the sub-floor due to warping or shrinking may have disastrous results on the parquet which is laid upon it. Plated parquet consists of selected hard woods firmly fixed on a framed deal backing. It is made in sections for easy transport, and these are fitted together in the apartment for which they are intended. When secured to the joists these form a perfect floor. Skirtings.—In joinery, the skirting is a board fixed around the base of See also: internal walls to form an ornamental base for the wall (see fig. 7). It also covers the joint between the flooring and the wall, and protects the base of the wall from injury. Skirtings may be placed in two classes—those formed from a plain board with its upper edge either left square or moulded, and those formed of two or more See also:separate members and termed a built-up skirting (fig. 6). Small angle fillets or mouldings are often used as skirtings.The skirting should be worked so as to allow it to be fixed with the heart side of the wood outwards; any tendency to warp will then only serve to press the See also: top edge more closely to the wall. In good work a .See also:halt groove should be formed in the floor and the skirt-FIG. 6.—Built- See also:ing tongued into it so that an open joint is avoided up Skirting should shrinkage occur. The skirting should be tongued to nailed only near the top to wood grounds fixed to floor. wood plugs in the joints of the See also:brickwork. These grounds are about to I in. thick, i.e. the same thickness as the See also:plaster, and are generally splayed or grooved on the edge to form a key for the plaster. A rough coat of plaster should always be laid on the wall behind the skirting in order to prevent the space becoming a harbourage for See also:vermin. Dados.—A dado, like a skirting, is useful both in a decorativeand a protective sense. It is filled in to ornament and protect that portion of the wall between the See also:chair or dado rail and the skirting. It may be of See also:horizontal boards battened at the back and with cross tongued and glued joints, presenting a perfectly smooth surface, or of matched boarding fixed vertically, or of panelled framing. The last method is of course the most ornate and admits of great variety of See also:design. The work is fixed to rough framed wood grounds which are nailed to plugs driven into the joints of the brickwork. Fig.7 shows an example of a panelled dado with capping moulding and skirting. A picture rail also is shown; it is a small moulding with the top edge grooved to take the metal hooks from which pictures are hung. Walls are sometimes entirely sheathed with panelling, and very fine effects are obtained in this way. The fixing is effected to rough grounds in a manner similar to that adopted in the case of dados. In England the architects of the Tudor See also: period made great use of oak framing, panelled and richly carved, as a wall covering and decoration, and many beautiful examples may be seen in the remaining buildings of that period. Windows.—The parts of a window See also:sash are distinguished by the same terms as are applied to similar portions of ordinary framing, being formed of rails and styles, with sash bars rebated for See also:glazing. The upright sides are styles; the horizontal ones, which are tenoned into the styles, are rails (fig. 7). Sashes hung by one of their See also:vertical edges are called casements (fig. 8). They are really a See also:kind of glazed See also:door and sometimes indeed are used as such, as for example See also:French casements (fig. 9).They may be made to open either outwards or inwards. It is very difficult with the latter to form perfectly water-tight joints; with those opening outwards the trouble does not exist to so great an extent. This form of window, though almost superseded in England by the case frame with hung sashes, is in almost universal use on the Continent. See also: Yorkshire sliding sashes move in a horizontal direction upon grooved runners with the meeting styles vertical. They are Top rail Style ingag, rails Me Sash-q bars Bottom rail little used, and are See also:apt to admit draughts and wet unless efficient See also:Bay windows with cased frames and double hung sashes often checks are worked upon the sashes and frames. See also:Lights in a position difficult of See also:access are often hung on centre pivots. An example of this method is shown in fig. 8; metal pivots are fixed to the frame and the sockets in which these pivots work are screwed to the sash. Movement is effected by means of a See also:cord Section. See also:Casement window fitted with Shutters Hinges ~ ' See also:Half See also:plan through Half plan through casement. , centre hung sash. fixed so that a slight pull opens or closes the window to the desired extent, and the cord is then held by being tied to, or See also:twisted See also:round, a small metal See also:button or clip, or a geared fanlight opener may be used.For the side sashes of See also: lantern lights and for stables and factories this form of window is in general use. In the See also:British Isles and in See also:America the most usual form of window is the cased frame with double hung sliding sashes. This style has many advantages. It is efficient in excluding wet and draughts, See also:ventilation may be easily regulated and the sashes can be lowered and raised with ease without interference with any blinds, curtains or other fittings, that may be applied to the windows. In the ordinary window of this style, however, difficulty is experienced in cleaning the See also:external See also:glass without assuming a dangerous position on the See also:sill, but there are many excellent inventions now on the See also:market which obviate this difficulty by allowing—usually on the removal of a small thumb-See also:screw—the reversal of the sash on a See also:pivot or See also:hinge. Section. Details of A. Details of B. For a small extra cost these arrangements may be provided; they will be greatly appreciated by those who clean the windows. The cased frames are in the form of boxes to enclose the iron or lead weights which See also:balance the sashes (fig. 7), and consist of a See also:pulley style —which takes the wear of the sashes and is often of hard wood on this account—an inside lining, and an outside lining; these three members are continued to form the See also:head of the frame. The sashes are connected with the weights by See also:flax lines working over metal pulleys fixed in the pulley styles.For heavy sashes with See also: plate glass, chains are sometimes used instead of lines. Access to the weights for the purpose of fitting new cords is obtained by removing the See also:pocket piece. A thin back lining is provided to the sides only and is not required in the head. The sill is of oak weathered to throw off the water. A parting bead separates the sashes, and the inside bead keeps them in position. A parting slip hung from the head 'side the cased frame separates the balancing weights and ensures smooth working. The inside lining is usually grooved to take nw and See also:soffit linings, and the window board is fitted into a -med in the sill. The example shown in fig. 7 has an extra rail and bead; this enables the See also:lower sash to be raised 't of ventilation between the meeting rails without at the bottom of the sash. This is a considerable . the ordinary form, and the cost of constructing use , manner is scarcely greater.require the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction in order that the. mullions shall be so small as not to intercept more light than necessary; at the same time the sashes must work easily and the whole framing be See also:stable and strong. The sills should be mitred and tongued at the angles and secured by a hand-rail See also:bolt. Frequently it is not desired to hang all the sashes of a bay window, the side lights being fixed.To enable smaller angle mullions to be obtained, the cords of the front windows may be taken by means of pulleys over the heads of the side lights and attached to See also: counter-balance weights working in casings at the junction of the window with the wall. This enables solid angle mullions to be employed. If all the lights are required to be hung the difficulty may be surmounted by hanging two sashes to one weight. Lead weights take up less space than iron, and are used for heavy sashes. In framing and fixing skylights and lantern lights also great care is necessary to ensure the result being capable of resisting rough weather and See also:standing See also:firm in high winds. Glue should not be used in any of the joints, as it would attract moisture from the atmosphere and set up decay. Provision must be made for the See also:escape of the water which condenses on and runs down the under side of the glass, by means of a lead-lined channelled moulding, provided with See also:zinc or See also:copper See also:pipe outlets. The skylight stands on a curb raised at least 6 in. to allow of the exclusion of See also:rain by proper flashing. The sashes of the lantern usually take the form of fixed or hung casements fitted to solid mullions and angle posts which are framed into and support a solid head. The glazed framing of the roof is made up of moulded sash bars framed to hips and ridges of stronger section, these See also:rest on the head, projecting well beyond it in order to throw off the water. Shutters for domestic windows have practically fallen into disuse, but a reference to the different forms they may take is perhaps necessary. They. may be divided into two classes—those fixed to the outside of the window and those fixed inside.They may be battened, panelled or formed with louvres, the latter form admitting See also: air and a little light. External shutters are generally hung by means of hinges to the frame of the window: when the window is set in a reveal these hinges are necessarily of special shape, being of large projection to enable the shutters to See also:fold back against the face of the wall. Internally fixed shutters may be hinged or may slide either vertically or horizontally. Hinged folding boxed shutters are shown in the See also:illustration of a casement window (fig. 8), where the method of working is clearly indicated; they are usually held in position by means of a hinged iron See also:bar secured with a special catch. Lifting shutters are usually fitted in a casing formed in the window back, and the window board is hinged to lift up, to allow the shutters to be raised by means of rings fixed in their upper edges. The shutters are balanced by weights enclosed with casings in the manner de-scribed for double hung sashes. The panels are of course filled in with wood and not glazed. The shutters are fixed by means of a thumb-screw through the meeting rails, the lower sash being sup-ported on the window board which is closed down when the sashes have been lifted out. Shutters sliding horizontally are also used in some cases, but they are not so convenient as the forms described above. Shop-fronts.—The forming of shop-fronts may almost be considered a separate See also:branch of joiner's work. The design and construction are attended by many See also:minor difficulties, and, the requirements greatly varying with almost every See also:trade, careful study and See also:close See also:attention to detail are necessary.In the erection of shop-fronts, in order to allow the maximum width of glass with the minimum amount of obstruction, many special sections of sash bars and stanchions are used, the former often being reinforced by See also: cast iron or See also:steel of suitable form. For these reasons the construction of shop-fronts and fittings has been specialized by makers having a knowledge of the requirements of different trades and with facilities for making the special wood and metal fittings and casings necessary. Fig. 1s shows an example of a simple shop-front in See also:Spanish mahogany with See also:rolling shutters and See also:spring See also:roller See also:blind; it indicates the typical construction of a front, and reference to it will inform the reader on many points which need no further description. The See also:London Building See also:Act. 1894 requires the following regulations to be complied with in shop-fronts:—(i) In streets of a width not greater than 3o ft. a shop-front may project 5 in. beyond the external wall of the building to which it belongs, and the See also:cornice may project 13 in. (2) In streets of a width greater than 30 ft., the projections of the shop-front may be io in. and of the cornice i8 in. beyond the building See also:line. No woodwork of any shop-front shall be fixed higher than 25 ft. above the level of the public See also:pavement. No woodwork shall be fixed nearer than 4 in. to the centre of the party wall. The See also:pier of See also:brick or stone must project at least an See also:inch in front of the woodwork. These by-See also:laws will be made clear on reference to fig. 10, which is of a shop-front designed to face on to a road more than 30 ft. wide.Rolling shutters for shop-fronts are made by a number of firms, and are usually the subject of a separate estimate, being fixed by the makers themselves. The shutter consists of a number of narrow strips of wood, connected with each other by steel bands hinged at every joint, or it may be formed in iron or steel. This construction allows it to be coiled upon a See also: cylinder containing a strong spring and usually fixed on strong brackets behind the See also:fascia. The shutter See also:Lintel See also:Architrave ^ PWW/`v ent itt h all external See also:elevation. II is guided into position by the edges working in metal grooves a little under an inch wide. When the width of the opening to be closed renders it necessary to See also:divide the shutters into more than one portion, grooved movable pilasters are used, and when the shutters have to be lowered these are fixed in position with bolts, the shutter working on the grooved edges of the pilasters. Spring roller See also:canvas blinds work on a similar principle. The wrought-iron blind arms are capable, when the blind is extended, of being pushed up by means of a sliding arrangement, and fixed with a See also:pin at a level high enough to allow See also:foot passengers to pass along the pavement under them. The latter would need to be worked and framed in the shop and fixed entire. Polished hard wood architraves may be secretly fixed, i.e. without the heads of nails or screws showing on the face, by putting screws into the grounds with their heads slightly projecting, and hanging the moulding on them by means of keyhole slots formed in the back. Doors may be made in a variety of ways. The simplest form, the common ledged door, consists of vertical boards with plain or matched joints nailed to horizontal battens which correspond to the rails in framed doors.For openings over 2 ft. 3 in. wide, the doors should be furnished with braces. Ledged and braced doors are Section on AA. Rolled sfeel. r. A Elevation. -Inches g? 6 0 l a i Feet Detail of Shop-front. ------------------ ------------------------------ Plan above Stallboard. Doors.—External doors are usually hung to solid frames placed in the reveals of the brick or stone wall. The frames are rebated for the door and ornamented by mouldings either stuck or planted on. The jambs or posts are tenoned, wedged and glued to the head, and the feet secured to the sill by stub tenons or dowels of iron. Solid window frames are of similar construction and are used chiefly for casements and sashes hung on centres as already described. Internal doors are hung to See also: jamb linings (fig. 7). They are usually about i in. thick and rebated for the door. When the width of jamb allows it, panelling may be introduced as in the example shown. The linings are nailed or screwed to rough framed grounds i in. in thickness plugged or nailed to the wall or See also:partition. Architraves are the See also:borders or See also:finishing mouldings fixed around a window or door opening, and screwed or nailed to wood grounds. They are variously moulded according to the See also:fancy of the designer. The ordinary form of architrave is shown in the illustration of a cased window frame (fig. 8), and a variation appears in the combined architrave and over door See also:frieze and capping fitted around the six-panelled door (fig. 7). xv. i6similar, but have, in addition to the ledges at the back, oblique braces which prevent any tendency of the door to drop. The upper end of the See also:brace is birdsmouthed into the under side of the rail near the See also:lock edge of the door and crosses the door in an oblique direction to be birdsmouthed into the upper edge of the rail below, near the hanging edge of the door.This is done between each pair of rails. Framed led See also: ged and braced doors are a further development of this form of door. The framing consists of lock and hanging styles, top, See also:middle and bottom rails, with oblique braces between the rails. These members are tenoned together and the door sheathed with boarding. The top rail and styles are the full thickness of the door,. the braces and middle and bottom rails being less by the thickness of the sheathing boards, which are tongued into the top rail and styles and carried down over the other members to the bottom of the door. The three forms of door described above are used mainly for ternporary purposes, and stables, See also:farm buildings and outhouses of all descriptions. They are usually hung by wrought-iron cross See also:garnet or strap hinges fixed with screws or through bolts and nuts. II The doors in dwelling-houses and other buildings of a like character are commonly framed and panelled in one of the many ways possible. The framing consists of styles, rails and muntins or mountings, and these members are grooved to receive and hold the panels, which are inserted previously to the door being glued and wedged up. The common forms are doors in four or six rectangular panels, and although they may be made with any form and square & See also:flat number of panels, the principles of construction remain the same. The example shown in fig. 7 is of a six-panel door, with bolection moulded raised panels on one side, and moulded and flat panels on the other (fig. ii).A clear See also: idea of the method of jointing the various members may be obtained from fig. 12. The tongues of raised panels should be of parallel thickness, the bevels being stopped at the moulding. The projecting ends or horns of the styles are cut off after the door has been of Panelling. of the styles being damaged by the wedging process. Where there is a great deal of See also:traffic in both directions See also:swing doors, either single or double, are used. To open them it is necessary simply to push, the inconvenience of turning a handle and shutting the door after passing through being avoided, as a spring causes the door to return to its See also:original position without See also:noise. They are usually glazed and should be of substantial construction. The door is hinged at the top on a steel pivot; the bottom part fits into a metal See also:shoe connected with the spring, which is placed in a See also:box fixed below the floor. For large entrances, notably for hotels and See also:banks, a form of door working on the turnstile principle is frequently adopted. It is formed of four leaves fixed in the shape of a cross and working on top and bottom central See also:ball-bearing steel pivots, in a circular framing which forms a kind of See also:vestibule. The leaves of the door are fitted with slips of See also:india-See also:rubber at their edges which, fitting close to the circular framing, prevent draughts. When an elegant appearance is desired, and it is at the same time necessary to keep the cost of production as low as possible, doors of pine or other soft wood are sometimes covered with a See also:veneer or thin layer of hard wood, such as oak, mahogany or teak, giving the appearance of a solid door of the better material.Made in the ordinary way, however, the shrinkage or warping of the soft wood is very liable to cause the veneer to See also: buckle and See also:peel off. Veneered doors made on an improved method obviating this difficulty have been placed on the market by a See also:Canadian See also:company. The core is made up of strips of pine with the See also:grain reversed, dried at a temperature of 200° F., and glued up under pressure. Both the core and the hard wood veneer are grooved over their surfaces, and a special damp-resisting glue is applied; the two portions are then welded together under See also:hydraulic pressure. By See also:reason of their construction these doors possess the advantages of freedom from shrinking, warping and splitting, defects which are all too common in the ordinary Joint of veneered and solid hard wood doors. muntin & rail The best glue for internal woodwork is that should not be used in work exposed to the weather as it absorbs damp and thus hastens decay; in its place a See also:compound termed beaumontique, composed of white lead, See also:linseed oil and litharge, should be employed. See also:
Specimens of modern work are to be seen in See also: Beverley See also:Minster in Yorkshire, the Church of St Etheldreda in See also:Ely Place, London, and the Wycliffe Hall Chapel at See also:Oxford. Other examples both See also:ancient and modern abound in the See also:country. Carving is a trade apart from ordinary joinery, and requires aspecial ability and some See also:artistic feeling for its successful execution. But even in this work machinery has found a place, and carved ornaments of all descriptions are rapidly wrought with its aid. Small carved mouldings especially are evolved in this manner, and, being incomparably cheaper than those worked by See also:manual labour, are used freely where a See also:rich effect is desired. Elaborately carved panels also are made by machines and a result almost equal to work done entirely by hand is obtained if, after machinery has done all in its See also:power, the hand worker with his chisels and gouges puts the finishing touches to the work. Ironmongery.—In regard to the finishing of a building, no detail calls for greater See also:consideration than the selection and accurate fixing of suitable ironmongery, which includes the hinges, bolts, locks, door and window fittings, and the many varieties of metal finishings required for the completion of a building. The task of the selection belongs to the employer or the architect; the fixing is performed by the joiner. r Of hinges, the variety termed butts are in general use for hanging doors, and are so called from being fitted to the butt edge of the door. They should be of wrought iron, cast-iron butts being liable to snap should they sustain a See also:shock. Lifting butts are made with a removable pin to enable the door to be removed and replaced without unscrewing. Rising butts have oblique joints which cause the door to rise and clear a thick See also:carpet and yet make a close joint with the floor when shut.Hinges of brass or See also: gun-metal are used in special circumstances. Common forms of hinges used on ledged doors are the cross garnet and the strap. There are many varieties of spring hinges designed to bring the door automatically to a desired position. With such hinges a rubber stop should be fixed on the floor or other convenient place to prevent undue See also:strain through the door being forced back. Among locks and fastenings the ordinary See also:barrel or See also:tower bolt needs no description. The flush barrel is a bolt let in flush with the face of a door. The espagnolette is a development of the tower bolt and extends the whole height of the door; a handle at a convenient height, when turned, See also:shooting bolts at the top and bottom simultaneously. Their See also:chief use is for French casements. The padlock is used to secure doors by means of a See also:staple and See also:eye. The stock lock is a large rim lock with hard wood casing and is used for stables, church doors, &c.; it is in the form of a dead lock opened only by a key, and is often used in See also:conjunction with a See also:Norfolk latch. The metal cased rim lock is a cheap form for domestic and general use. The use of a rim lock obviates the necessity of forming a mortice in the thickness of the door which is required when a mortice lock , is used.See also: Finger plates add greatly to the good appearance of a door, Bead flush Moulded & flat Bolsotioe moulded & flat Moulded & raised and protect the painted work. Sash fasteners are fixed at the meeting rails of double hung sashes to prevent the window being opened from the outside and serve also to clip the two sashes tightly together. They should be of a See also:pattern to resist the attack of a See also:knife inserted between the rails. Sash lifts and pulls of brass or See also:bronze are fitted to large sashes. Ornamental casement stays and fasteners in many different metals are made in numerous designs and styles. Fanlight openers for single lights, or geared for a number of sashes, may be designed to suit positions difficult of access. The following are the See also:principal books of reference on this subject: J. See also:Gwilt, See also:Encyclopaedia of Architecture; Sutcliffe, Modern House Construction; See also:Rivington, Notes on Building Construction (3 vols.); H. See also:
See also:
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