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VENEZUELA
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VENEZUELA ,1 a See also:republic of See also:South See also:America, facing the Caribbean See also:sea, and bounded E. by See also:British See also:Guiana and See also:Brazil S. by Brazil and W. by See also:Colombia. Its boundary with Colombia is unfixed, a decision by the See also: The sierra contains the See also:water-parting between the basin of the Orinoco and those of the small See also:rivers on the north-west. Hence it may be considered to terminate where the Rio Cojedes, which drains the elevated valley in which See also:Barquisimeto stands, after rising on its western slopes flows eastwards into the basin of the Orinoco. Beyond the Cojedes begin two parallel ranges known as the Maritime Andes of Venezuela, which stretch See also:east and west along the See also:coast. The valley, between these two ranges is the most densely peopled See also:part of Venezuela. Above See also:Caracas the highest See also:peak of the See also:system, Silla de Caracas, rises to 8531 ft. Behind the wide See also:bay between Cape Codera and See also:Cumana there is an interruption in the Maritime Andes; but both ranges reappear between Cumana and the Gulf of Paria. West of the Maritime Andes See also:low ranges (3500-5000 ft.) trend northwards from the end of the Sierra de Merida towards the coast on the east See also:side of the See also:Lake of See also:Maracaibo, while the region on the west of that lake consists of See also:lagoon-studded lowlands. East and south of the Sierra de Merida and the Maritime Andes the region is thinly populated and little known. It consists of two portions—a vast, hilly or mountainous area, densely wooded, in the south-east and south, and level plains in the north-west between the Orinoco and the See also:Apure and the mountains. The latter is known as the llanos of the Orinoco, a region described by See also:Humboldt as a vast " sea of grass," with islands of See also:wood scattered here and there. Since the See also:time of Humboldt, however, the aspect of these plains would seem to have changed. On the occasion of Karl F. Appun's visit in 185o trees seem still to have been comparatively rare; but a different aspect was presented when Dr P. See also:Jonas visited the llanos in 1878. From the Galera, the southernmost range of hills north of the Orinoco basin, the traveller saw a vast See also:plain thickly grown with low trees. As far as See also:Calabozo (about one-third of the distance between the hills and the Apure) it was now chaparros (Curatella americana), now mimosas, which were the prevailing feature of the landscape. But towards the south the open grass-covered spaces increased in number and area. To the south of Calabozo wood's of consider-able extent were seen. This See also:change is due to the decline of See also:horse-and See also:cattle-rearing in the llanos, partly in consequence of See also:political disturbances and partly of a See also:murrain which See also:broke out in 1843 among horses, mules and asses. The decline in stock-raising would also suspend the practice of burning off the dead grass to improve the new pasturage. Along the Brazilian frontier and about the See also:sources of the Orinoco tributaries on the eastern slopes of the Andes there are extensive forests, sometimes broken with grassy cameos. The surface of the llanos is almost a dead level, the See also:general See also:elevation i The name means " little See also:Venice," and is a modification of the name of Venecia (Venice), originally bestowed by Alonzo de Ojeda in 1499 on an See also:Indian See also:village, composed of See also:pile dwellings on the shores of the Gulf of Maracaibo, which was called by him the Gulf of Venecia.varying from about 375 to 400 it., rising almost imperceptibly to 600-800 ft. around its immediate margins, So See also:uniform: is the level over a great, part of these plains that in the See also:rainy See also:season hundreds of 'square See also:miles are submerged, and' the See also:country • is covered with a network of connecting channels. When the Orinoco is reached its See also:lower basin is contracted between the Guiana highlands and the northern sierras, and its tributaries begin to come in more nearly at right angles, showing that the margins of the actual valley are nearer and higher. About 62° 3o' the great See also:river reaches what may be considered sea-level, and from this point numerous channels find their way. across the silted-up See also:delta plain to the sea. This region, together with that of the Guiana frontier, is heavily forested. In the extreme S. (territory of See also:Amazonas) and S.E. the surface again rises into mountain ranges, which include the Parima and Pacaraima sierras on apd adjacent, to the Brazilian frontier, with a number of See also:short spurs reaching northward toward the Orinoco, such as the Mapichi, Maraguaca, Maigualida, Mates, Rincote and Usupamo. All this region belongs to the drainage basin of the Orinoco, and rivers of large See also:volume flow down between these spurs. Some of the culminating points in, these ranges are the Cerros Yaparana (7175 ft.) and Duida (812o ft.) in the Parima sierras near the upper. Orinoco, the Sierra de Maraguaca (8228 ft.), and the celebrated. See also:flat-topped Mt Roraima (8530 ft.) in the Pacaraima sierras on the boundary line with. Brazil and British Guiana. Near the Orinoco the general. elevation drops to about 15oo ft. All this region is densely forested, and is inhabited only by scattered tribes of See also:Indians. Probably not less, than, four-fifths of the territory of Venezuela belong to the drainage basin of the Orinoco (q.v.). The Orinoco is supposed to have 436 tributaries. of which, among the largest, the Caroni-Paragua, Are, Caura, Cuchivero, Suapure, Sipapo and Ventuari have their sources in the Guiana highlands; the Suata, Manepere and Guaritico in the• northern sierras; and the Apure, Uricana, Arauca, Capanaparo, See also:Meta, Vichada and Guaviare (the last three being Colombian rivers) in the llanos and Andes. The Apure receives two large tributaries from the northern sierras—the See also:Guarico and Portuguesa. Apart from these, the rivers of Venezuela are small and, except those of the Maracaibo basin, are rarely navigable. The larger are the Guanipa and Guarapiche, which flow eastwards to the Gulf of Paria; the See also:Aragua, Unare and Thy, which flow to the Caribbean coast E. of Caracas; the Yaracui, Area and Tocuyo to the same coast W. of Caracas; andhthe Motatan, Chama, E.scalante, Catatumbo, Apan`and Palmas, which See also:discharge into Lake Maracaibo. The See also:hydrography of the region last mentioned, where the lowlands are flat and the rainfall heavy, is extremely complicated owing to the great number of small' rivers and of lakes on or near the lower river courses. The deep lower courses of: these streams and the small neighbouring lakes were once part of the great lake itself, which is being slowly filled by silt. The lakes of Venezuela are said to number 204. The largest are the Maracaibo (q.v.); El. Zulia, with an area of 290 sq. m., a short distance S. of Maracaibo among a large number of lakes, lagoons and swamps; See also:Valencia, near the See also:city of that name, in the Maritime Andes, about 1350 ft, above sea-level, with an area of 216 sq. m.; Laguneta, in the See also:state of Zulia; and Taciragua, a coastal lagoon in the state of. See also:Miranda. There are numerous lagoons in the ?See also:lane districts caused by the periodical floods of the rivers, and extensive esteros and cienagas, in part due to the same causes, but these either dry up in the dry season or are greatly reduced in area. . The coast outline of Venezuela is indented with a large number of gulfs and bays, comparatively few of which, however, are open to See also:foreign See also:commerce. The larger indentations are the Gulf of Maracaibo, or Venezuela, which extends inland through the Lake of Maracaibo, with which it is connected, by, a comparatively narrow channel, and is formed by the peninsulas of Goajiraand Paraguana; the Gulf of Paria, between the See also:peninsula of that name and the See also:island of See also:Trinidad; the Gulf of See also:Coro, opening into the Gulf of Maracaibo; the Gulf of See also:Cariaco, between the peninsula of Araya and the state of See also:Bermudez; the Golfo Triste, on the E. coast of the state of See also:Lara; and the small Gulf of See also:Santa Fe, on the northern coast of Bermudez. Besides these there are a number of small indentations, sheltered anchorages formed by islands and reefs like, that of Puerto Cabello, and estuaries and also open roadsteads, like those of La Guaira and See also:Carupano, which serve important ports. The islands on the coast forming part of the See also:national territory number 71, with an aggregate area of 14,633 sq. m., according to See also:official calculations. The largest of these is the island of See also:Margarita, N. of the 'peninsula of Araya, in the vicinity of which is the island of Tortuga and several See also:groups of islets, generally uninhabited. (A. J. L.) See also:Geology.—Geologically Venezuela consists of three distinct regions: (1) South of the Orinoco a great See also:mass of See also:granite, See also:gneiss, See also:pyroxenite and other crystalline rocks, continuous with that of Guiana and probably of 'Archean See also:age. This mass also forms the See also:bed of the Orinoco from its junction with the Apure nearly to its mouth, and it probably extends northwards for some distance beneath the more See also:recent deposits of the plain. (2) The llanos. covered by deposits of See also:Quaternary or See also:late See also:Tertiary age. (3) The mountain ranges of the north-west and north. These ranges appear to belong to two systems. The See also:Cordillera of Merida is one of the opposed to that of See also:Froissart. His democratic sympathies led him to support See also:Etienne See also:Marcel, and though he returned to his See also:allegiance to the See also:kings of See also:France he remained a severe critic. See also:Jean de See also:Venette also wrote a long See also:French poem, La See also:Vie See also:des trois Maries, about 1347. See Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye in Memoires de l'Academie, vols. viii. and xiii.; Geraud and Deprez in Melanges de l'ecole de See also:Rome (1899), vol. xix. ; and A. See also:Molinier, See also:Les Sources de 1'histoire de France (1904), branches of the Andes, and the strike of the folds which compose it is usually from south-west to north-east. The Caribbean chain along the north coast is part of the Antillean system, and here the strike of the folds is nearly west to east or west-south-west to east-north-east. The two systems of folds meet about Barquisimeto, where the structure becomes very complex and is not thoroughly understood. The rocks of See also:Falcon are believed by Sievers to belong to the Andean system; while the outlying peninsula of Paraguana probably belongs, geologically, to the same See also:massif as Goajira and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Maria in Colombia. The See also:oldest rocks in the country are the granites, gneisses, &c., of the See also:southern massif and the crystalline See also:schists which See also:form the See also:axis of the Cordillera and the Caribbean chain. In the latter range a few Ordovician fossils have been found, but in general the oldest strata which have yielded organic remains belong to the Cretaceous system. The Cretaceous beds form a See also:band along each side of the Cordillera and along the southern flank of the Caribbean chain, and they spread over the greater part of the provinces of Falcon and Lara. The Lower Cretaceous consists chiefly of sandstones and shales and the See also:Middle Cretaceous of very fossiliferous See also:limestone. There is considerable difference of See also:opinion as to the See also:chronology of the succeeding beds, and the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary systems is See also:drawn at various horizons by different observers. The Cerro de Oro See also:series is the most important See also:group of these beds and takes a considerable See also:share in the formation of the mountain ranges. It belongs either to the Upper Cretaceous or to the Lower Tertiary, or possibly in part to the one and in part to the other.' (P. LA.) See also:Climate.—The climate of Venezuela is everywhere tropical except where modified by See also:altitude. In the Maritime Andes at and above the altitude of Caracas it may be described as semi-tropical, and in the still higher regions of western Venezuela it approaches the mild temperate. On the coast and the northern slopes of the Mari-time Andes the tropical See also:heat is greatly modified by the See also:trade-winds. At La Guaira the mean temperature for the year is 85° F., at Caracas (3025 ft.) it is 71.2° (or 66.2° according to an official return), at Cumana it is 83°, at Valencia 76°, Coro 82°, Barquisimeto 78°, Yaritagua 80.6°, Merida 61°, See also:Trujillo 72°, and Maracaibo 81 °. South of the sierras, however, the climate is much drier and hotter. The low temperatures of the See also:night in these regions lower the mean See also:annual temperatures. At Calabozo, for instance, the mean is about 88°, though the maximum in summer is not far from See also:loo°. At See also:Ciudad See also:Bolivar, which, is less sheltered from the trade-winds, the mean is 83° and the maximum 91.4°. The lowest temperatures re-corded in official reports are those of Mucuchies, in the state of Merida, where the maximum is 68°, the minimum 43° and the mean 56°. The year is divided into two seasons, the dry and wet, the latter occurring from See also:April to October, when the temperature is also the highest. On the llanos the dry season destroys the pasturage completely; dries up the small streams and lagoons, and compels many animals of semi-aquatic habits to aestivate. At Caracas the annual rainfall ranged from 602 to 863 millimetres between 1894 and 1902. In general the zlimate of Venezuela is healthy wherever the ocean winds have See also:free See also:access. Sheltered places in the lowlands, especially near streams and lagoons, are malarial and enervating, and at some points on the coast are subject to dangerous fevers. The sanitary See also:condition is generally See also:bad, and many forms of disease prevail that are not due to the climate. See also:Fauna.—The fauna and See also:flora of Venezuela are similar in nearly all respects to thoseof the neighbouring regions of Guiana, Brazil and Colombia, the-open llanos of the Orinoco being something of See G. P. See also:Wall, " On the Geology of a part of Venezuela and of Trinidad," Quart. 7ourn. Geol. See also:Soc. See also:London, vol. xvi. (186o), pp. 46o-7o, pl. xxi. ; H. See also:Karsten, Geologie de la Colombie Bolivarienne (See also:Berlin, 1886) ; W. Sievers, " Karten zur physikalischen Geographie von Venezuela," Peterm. Mittheil. vol. xlii. (1896), pp. 125-29, p1 x.a neutral See also:district between the. great forested regions on the E., S. and W. Among the animals indigenous to the country are seven See also:species of the See also:cat See also:family, including the See also:puma, the See also:jaguar and the See also:ocelot; the See also:wild See also:dog (Canis Aaaras); several representatives of the See also:marten family, including two species of Galictis, two of the See also:otter (Lutra brasiliensis and L. pieronura) and one of the See also:skunk; two species of See also:bear (Ursus ornatus and U. nasutus) ; and the See also:kinkajou." There are six species of See also:monkey corresponding to those of Guiana and the See also:Amazon valley, the See also:sloth and. See also:ant-eater, 12 known genera of rodents, including many species of Mures, the See also:cavy, the See also:capybara, the See also:paca, the See also:nutria, the See also:agouti, the See also:tree See also:porcupine, Loncheres cristata, Echimys cayen and the Brazilian See also:hare. Among the pachyderms the See also:tapir is found in the forests of the Orinoco. There are two species of the See also:peccary, Dicotyles torquatus and D. labiatus. There are also 2 species of See also:deer, Cervus See also:rufus and C. simplicornis. There are 3 species of See also:opossum. On the coast and in the Orinoco there may be found the manatee and the See also:dolphin. The Reptilia include II species of the See also:crocodile, See also:alligator and See also:lizard, including the See also:savage jacar6 of the Amazon, several species of -turtle, 4 species of batrachians, and 29 species of serpents, including the striped See also:rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus), Lachesis mutus, and a rather rare species of Cophias. Among the non-venomous species, the commonest are the See also:boa-constrictor, the See also:anaconda (Eunectes murinus) and the Smarr waixkNsa Coluber variabilis. See also:Bird See also:life is represented chiefly by migratory species, particularly of genera that inhabit the shores of streams and lagoons. The shallow lagoons of the llanos, like those of the See also:Argentine See also:pampas, are favourite fishing grounds for these birds. In the garzeres of Venezuela See also:ate to. be found nearly every See also:kind of See also:heron, See also:crane, See also:stork and See also:ibis, together with an incredible number of Grallatores. Ducks are also numerous in species and individuals, including a small bird called the guiriri, in See also:imitation of its cry. Birds of See also:prey are numerous. One species, the See also:guacharo (Steatornis caripensis), or oil-bird, is commonly said to ' occur only in Venezuela, •though it is found in Colombia and See also:Ecuador also, They live in caves, especially in See also:Caripe, and are caught in large See also:numbers for the oil extracted from them, which is commonly known as " Caripe See also:butter." The See also:bell-bird (Chasmorhynchus carunculatus) is See also:common in the forests of the Orinoco. See also:Insect life is perhaps poorer and less varied than in Brazil, but in the 14 orders of See also:insects there are no less than 98 families, each including many genera and species. There are 8 families of See also:Coleoptera, 6 of See also:Orthoptera, 23 of See also:Hymenoptera, 14 of See also:Lepidoptera and 7 of See also:Diptera. Locusts are very numerous in the interior, and commit great ravages. Molluscs are common on the coasts, including the See also:pearl-See also:oyster, and in the fresh-water streams and lakes. The See also:coral See also:polyp is also found in Venezuelan See also:waters. The domestic animals A 990 of Venezuela—the horse, See also:ass, ox, See also:sheep, See also:goat, hog, dog, cat, &c.—are not indigenous. Flora:—The flora of Venezuela covers a wide range because of the See also:vertical See also:climatic zones. The coastal See also:zone and lower slopes of all the mountains, including the lower Orinoco region and the Maracaibo basin, are clothed with a typical tropical vegetation. There is no seasonal interruption in vegetation. The tropical vegetation extends to an altitude of about 1300 ft., above which it may be classed as semi-tropical up to about 3500 ft., and temperate up to 7200 ft., above which the vegetation is Alpine. Palms grow everywhere; among them the coco-See also:nut See also:palm (Cocos nucifera) is the most prominent. There are some exotics in this zone, like the See also:mango, which thrive so well that they are thought to be indigenous. The cacau is at .its best in the humid forests of this region and is cultivated in the See also:rich alluvial valleys, and the See also:banana thrives everywhere, as well as the See also:exotic See also:orange and See also:lemon. On the mountain slopes See also:orchids are found in great profusion. See also:Sugar-See also:cane is cultivated in the alluvial valleys and See also:coffee on their slopes up to a height of about 2000 ft. Among the many tropical fruits found here are bananas, guavas, mangoes, cashews, See also:bread-See also:fruit, aguacates, papayas, zapotes, granadillas, oranges, lemons and limes. In the next zone are grown many of the cereals (including See also:rice), beans, See also:tobacco, sugar-cane, peaches, apricots, quinces and strawberries. The Ilexes have some distinguishing characteristics. They are extensive grassy plains, the lowest being the bed of an See also:ancient inland lake about which is a broad See also:terrace (See also:mesa), the See also:talus perhaps of the ancient encircling highlands. The lower level has extensive lagoons and swampy areas and suffers less from the long periodical drought. Its wild See also:grasses are luxuriant and a shrubby growth is found along many of its streams. The decline to stock-breeding resulted in a considerable growth of trees and chaparral over the greater part of the plain A large part of the chaparral 'consists of the chaparao, a low See also:evergreen See also:oak of See also:hardy characteristics, mixed with See also:mimosa, desmauthus, zonia and others. Much of this r See also:ion is covered with amelote, a tall, worthless, grass ith See also:sharp stiff See also:blades. One of the most remarkable palms of the Orinoco region is the " moriche " (Mauritia' flexuosa). The fruit is edible and its juice is made into See also:beer; the See also:sap of the tree is made into See also:wine, and its See also:pith into bread; the leaves furnish an excellent See also:thatch, and the fibre extracted from their midribs is used for See also:fish lines, cordage, hammocks, nets, &c.; and the wood is hard and makes See also:good See also:building material. The fruit of the Guilielma is also widely used for See also:food among the natives. -Among other See also:forest trees of economic importance are the See also:silk-See also:cotton tree (Bombexceiba), the Palo de taco, or cow-tree (Brosimum galactodeaelson), whose sap resembles See also:milk and is used for that purpose, the Ingo saman, the Hevea guayanensis, celebrated in the See also:production of See also:rubber, and the Attglea speciosa, distinguished for the length of its leaves. The See also:principal economic See also:plants of the country are cacau, coffee, See also:cassava (manioc) called " mandioca " in Brazil, Indian See also:corn, beans, sweet potatoes, taro, sugar-cane, cotton and tobacco. Of these coffee and sugar-cane were introduced by Europeans. See also:Population.—The population of Venezuela is largely a See also:matter of conjecture, no See also:census having been taken since the third general census of 1891, which gave a See also:total population of 2,323,527, of which 1,137,139 were See also:males and 1,186,388 See also:females, and there were 02,898 foreign residents. The official Handbook of Venezuela for 9o4 estimated the population for the preceding year as 2,663,671. The population consists of a small, percentage of whites of See also:European - descent, chiefly Spaniards, various tribes and settlements of Indians, largely of the See also:Arawak and Carib families, and a large percentage of mestizos, or mixed bloods. There is a large admixture'of'Atrican See also:blood. See also:Hubner estimates the mixed of all races at 93%, the highest among all the South See also:American nationalities, and the creoles at 1% only; but this is clearly incorrect. Perhaps a closer approximation would be to See also:rate the See also:creole See also:element (whites of European descent) at to%, as in Colombia, and the mixed races at 7o%, the See also:remainder consisting of Africans, Indians and See also:resident foreigners. Territorial Divisions.—The territorial divisions of Venezuela have been subjected to many changes. Under the constitution of the 27th of April 1904, the republic was divided into 13 states, 1 federal district and 5 territories, the names of which are as follows; those of the See also:capital cities being given in brackets: Federal District (Caracas and La See also:Asuncion); Aragua (La See also:Victoria); Berm1dez (Cumana); Bolivar (Ciudad Bolivar); See also:Carabobo (Valencia); Falcon (Coro); Guarico (Calabozo); Lara (Barquisimeto); Merida (Merida); Miranda (Ocumare); Tachira (See also:San Cristobal); Trujillo (Trujillo); See also:Zamora (San See also:Carlos); Zulia (Maracaibo), with the following territories: Amazonas (San Fernando de Atabapo) ; Cohan (Gran Roque) ; Cristobal See also:Colon (Cristobal ColOn);Delta-Amacuro(San Jose de Amacuro) ; Yaruari (Guacipaji). On the 5th of See also:August 1909, however, a new See also:division was promulgated, giving 20 states, I federal district and 2 territories. Under this division some of the recognized administrative See also:units were greatly altered in area or even abolished, and the capital status of several cities was apparently affected. The division was as follows: Federal District (Caracas) ; Anzoategui • (See also:Barcelona ; Apure (San Fernando de Apure) ; Aragua (La Victoria) ; Bolivar (Ciudad Bolivar); Carabobo (Valencia) ; Cojedes (San Carlos); Falcon (Coro) ; Guarico (Calabozo) ; Lara (Barquisimete) ; Merida (Merida); Miranda (Ocumare); Monagas (See also:Maturin) ; Nueva Esparta (La Asuncion); Portuguesa (Guanare); See also:Sucre (Cumana); Tachira (San Cristobal); Trujillo (Trujillo) ; Yaracuy (San Felipe) ; Zamora (Barinas) ; Zulia (Maracaibo), with the following territories: Amazonas (San Fernando, de Atabapo); Delta-Amacuro (Tucupita). Communications and Commerce.—T here has been no great development of railway construction in Venezuela, partly on See also:account of political insecurity and partly because of the backward See also:industrial state of the country. In 1908 there were only 13 railway lines with a mileage of about 540 in., including the short lines from Caracas to El See also:Valle and La Guaira to Maiquetia and Macuto, and the La Vela and Coro. The longest of these is the See also:German line from Caracas to Valencia (See also:Ili m,), and the next longest the Great Tachira, rynnin from Encontrada on Lake Maracaibo inland to Uraca (71 m.), with a projected See also:extension to San Cristobal. Another line in the Lake Maracaibo region is known as the Great La Ceiba, and runs from a point near the lake to the vicinity of Valera and Trujillo. An important line connects the thriving city of Barquisimeto with the See also:port of Tucacas. The best known of the Venezuelan See also:railways is the short line from La Guaira to Caracas (221 m.), which scales the steep sides of the mountain behind La Guaira and reaches an elevation of 3135 ft. before arriving at Caracas: It is a British enterprise, and is one of the few railways in Venezuela that pay a See also:dividend. The Puerto Cabello and Valencia line (34m.) is another British undertaking and carries a good See also:traffic. A part of this line is built with a central See also:cog-See also:rail. Probably a return to settled political ,and industrial conditions in Venezuela will result in a large add??tion to its railway mileage, as a means of bringing the fertile inland districts into See also:direct communication with the coast. In steamship lines the republic has almost nothing to show. A See also:regular service is maintained on Lake Maracaibo, one on Lake Valencia, and another on the Orinoco, Apure and Portuguesa rivers, starting from Ciudad Bolivar. The coast of Venezuela has an aggregate length of 1876 m., and there are 32 ports, large and small, not including those of Lakes Maracaibo and Tacarigua and the Orinoco. The great See also:majority of these have only a limited commerce, restricted to domestic exchanges...-The first-class ports are La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Ciudad Bolivar, Maracaibo and Carupano„and the second-class are Sucre, Juan Griego; Guiria, See also:Cairo See also:Colorado, See also:Guanta,-Tucacas, La Vela and Porlamar. The commerce of these ports, both in the foreign and domestic trade, is small, See also:tariff regulations being onerous, and the See also:people too impoverished to be consumers of much beyond the barest necessaries of life. The total foreign trade in 1908 amounted to $9,778,810 imports and $14,560,830 exports, the values being in U.S. See also:gold. The exports to the See also:United States were valued at $5,550,073 and to France $5,496,627. The principal exports were coffee, cacau, divi-divi, rubber, hides and skins, cattle and See also:asphalt. The imports include manufactured articles of all kinds, hardware and building materials, earthenware and glassware, See also:furniture, drugs and medicines, wines, foodstuffs, See also:coal, See also:petroleum and many other things. The See also:coasting trade is largely made up of products destined for exportation, or imports trans-shipped from the first-class ports to the smaller ones which have no direct relations with foreign countries. In the See also:absence of statistical returns it is impossible to give the values of this branch of trade. The exchanges of domestic products are less important than they should be. The Orinoco trade is carried on almost wholly through Port of Spain, Trinidad, where merchandise and produce is transferred between See also:light See also:draught river boats and foreign ocean-going steamers. The distance from Port of Spain to Ciudad Bolivar is 299 in. and the traffic is carried by foreign-owned steamers. Under the See also:administration of See also:President Cipriano See also:Castro this traffic was suspended for a long time, and trans-shipments were made at La Guaira. Above Ciudad Bolivar transportation is effected by two or three small river steamers and a great number of small See also:craft (leeches, bungos, balandras, &c.), using sails, oars and punting poles. See also:Agriculture.—The principal See also:industries of Venezuela are agricultural and See also:pastoral. Both have suffered heavily from military operations, but still they have remained the basis of Venezuelan See also:wealth and progress. Much the greater part of the republic is fertile and adapted to cultivation. See also:irrigation, which has not been used to any great extent, is needed in some parts of the country for the best results, but in others, as in the valleys and on the northern slopes of the Maritime Andes, the rainfall is sufficiently well distributed to meet most requirements. The long dry season of the Llano: and surrounding slopes, which have not as yet been devoted to cultivation, will require a different system of agriculture with systematic irrigation. In colonial times the Banos were covered with immense herds of cattle and horses and were inhabited by a See also:race of hardy, See also:expert horsemen, the llaneros. Both sides in the See also:War of See also:Independence See also:drew upon these herds, and the llaneros were among the bravest in both armies. The end of the war found the /lanes a See also:desert, both herds and herdsmen having nearly disappeared. Successive See also:civil See also:wars prevented their recovery, and these great plains which ought to be one of the See also:chief sources of See also:meat See also:supply for the See also:world are comparatively destitute of stock, and the only source of See also:revenue from this See also:industry is the small number of animals shipped to the West Indies. The breeding of goats and See also:swine is an important industry in some regions. The climatic conditions are not so favourable as in See also:Argentina, but these are counterbalanced to some extent by the great river system of the Orinoco, whose large navigable tributaries See also:cross the plains from end to end, and whose smaller streams from the surrounding highlands provide See also:superior opportunities for water storage and irrigation. On the mesas See also:alfalfa could be substituted for the native grasses and be used for stock when the pasturage of the lower plains is not available. Other industries of the colonial See also:period were the cultivation of See also:indigo and tobacco. The former has nearly disappeared, but the latter is still one of the more important products of the country. The best known tobacco-producing localities are Capadare, Yaritagua, Merida, Cumanacoa, Guanape, Guaribe and Barinas. The best quality is that from the Capadare district, in the state of Falcon, which rivals that of the Vuelta Abajo of See also:Cuba. No effort is made to improve the Venezuelan product, a part of which is exported to Cuba for See also:cigar making. The principal agricultural products are coffee, cacau (cacao), sugar, Indian corn and beans. Coffee was introduced from See also:Martinique in 1784 and its exportation began five years later. It is grown at elevations of 1600 to 3000 ft., and the yield is reported to be i to 1 lb per tree, which is much less than the yield in Sao Paulo, Brazil. An official See also:work (Veloz Goiticoa, Venezuela, Washing-ton, 1904) gives the number of coffee trees in Venezuela as 250,000,000 belonging to 33,000 estates; the output was 42,806 tons in 1907. Several grades are produced in Venezuela, determined by See also:geographical position, altitude and method of curing and preparing for See also:market. The Maracaibo type from the mountain-slopes of Merida, Trujillo and Tachira is perhaps the best known and brings the best See also:price. Cacau (Theobroma cacao) is an indigenous product and is extensively cultivated on the Caribbean slopes. It requires a high temperature (about 8o° F.), rich See also:soil and a high degree of humidity for the best development of the tree. The tree has an See also:average height of 12–13 ft., begins bearing five years after planting, requires little, See also:attention beyond occasional irrigation, bears two crops a year (See also:June and See also:December), and produces well until it is See also:forty years of age—the yield being from 490 to 600 lb per See also:acre of zoo trees. There are two grades of Venezuelan cacau—the criollo or native, and the trinitario, or Trinidad, the first being superior in quality. The best cacau comes from the vicinity of Caracas and is marketed under that name. The exportation of 1907 was about 14,000 tons. Sugarcane is not indigenous, but it is cultivated with marked success in the lowlands of Zulia, and at various points on the coast. The industry, however, has not kept See also:pace with its development in other countries aid, in great part, still employs antiquated methods and machinery. Its principal product is " papel6n," or See also: The plant is indigenous and grows well, but, unlike cacau, it requires much See also:manual labour in its cultivation and picking and does not seem to be favoured by the planters. Indian corn is widely grown and provides the See also:staple food of the people, especially in the interior. Beans also are a common food, and are universally produced, especially the See also:black See also:bean. See also:Wheat was introduced by the Spaniards immediately after their occupation of Venezuela, and is grown in the elevated districts of Aragua and the western states, but the production does not exceed See also:home See also:consumption. Rice is a common See also:article of food and is one of the principal imports. Several states are offering bounties to encourage its cultivation at home. Other agricultural products are sweet potatoes, cassava (manioc), yuca, yams, See also: Gold is found throughout a wide area, but chiefly in the Yuruari region, about zoo m. S.W. of the principal mouth of the Orinoco and near the See also:borders of British Guiana, where the famous El See also:Callao mines are. These mines have produced as much as 181,040.2 See also:Spanish oz. in one year (1886) and a total of I,2p,929.09 oz. from 1871 to 1890, while another See also:report gives an output valued at $23,000,000 U.S. gold in the fifteen years from 1884 to 1899. The production since then has greatly declined. There are 14 copper mines in the country, those at Area, 7o m. W. of Puerto Cabello and in railway communication with Tucacas (89 m.), being the most productive. They date from 1605 and now belong to an' See also:English See also:company. The output from 1878 to 1891 was 329,218 tons of ore and 53,053 tons of See also:regulus, valued at £2,7941986. Iron of a good quality has been found in the Imataca region, Delta-Amacuro territory, 53 m. from the " Boca Grande " of the Orinoco. The principal coal deposits developed are at Naricual, near Barcelona, and a railway has been constructed to bring the output to the port of Guanta. Asphalt is taken from several deposits—from Maracaibo, Cumana, and Pedernales in the Orinoco delta. The latter See also:place also yields petroleum. Sulphur is See also:mined near Carupano, and See also:salt in Zulia and on the peninsula of Araya. The latter is a See also:government See also:monopoly, and the high prices at which it is sold constitutes serious See also:prejudice to the people and to industries like that of meat packing. Pearl See also:Fisheries.—One of the oldest of Venezuelan ,kndustries, the Margarita pearl fisheries, was prohibited in 1909 for an indefinite time because of the threatened extinction of the oyster beds. The industry See also:dates from the first exploration of this coast and was probably carried on before that by the natives.: The fisheries are established about the islands of Margarita, Coche and Cubagua, the best producing beds being at El Tirane and Macanao, the first N.E. and the other N.W. of Margarita. The natives engaged in the See also:fishery used some 400 sailboats of 3 to .15 tons capacity, and the beds were raked is See also:search of pearl oysters. In 19oo a concession was granted for an exclusive right to fish for. pearls, &c., between Margarita and the coast, the contractor to use submarine apparatus. Manufactures.—There are few manufacturing industries in Venezuela, and these usually of the parasitic type, created by official favour and protected by high tariffs on imports ip, competition. The manufactures of this class include aerated waters, beer, candles, See also:chocolate, cigarettes, cotton fabrics, hats, See also:ice, matches, boots and shoes, drugs and medicines. There are a number of electric plants, three of, which use water See also:power, one at El Eacantado„ to rn. from Caracas, one at Merida, and the third at San Cristobal, Tachira. The plants using See also:steam for See also:motive power are at Caracas, Maracaibo, Valencia and Puerto Cabello. There has been sortie development in the manufacture of agricultural machinery and implements, vehicles, pianos and furniture, and some older, industries, such as tanning See also:leather and the manufacture of saddles and See also:harness, the milling of wheat and Indian corn, distilling, See also:soap-making, &c. At Guanta there is a factory for the manufacture of patent See also:fuel from Naricual coal and asphalt. In 1901 there was one saladero, or meat-packing See also:establishment, in the Orinoco-Apure region, but it did not prove successful because of the high cost of salt. Government.—The government' of Venezuela is that of a federal republic of nominally See also:independent, self-governing states, administered according to the provisions of the See also:con'stitution of the 27th of April 1904, modified or revised on the 5th of August 1909. The legislative power is nominally vested in a national See also:Congress of two houses-the See also:Senate and Chamber of Deputies—which meets at Caracas every two years on the 23rd of May, the session lasting 90 days. The Senate consists of two members from each state, or 4o members, who are elected by the state legislatures for a period of four years. A senator must be a native-See also:born See also:citizen and not less 'than See also:thirty years of age. The Chamber consists of popular representatives, elected by direct See also:vote, in the proportion of one See also:deputy for each 35,000 of population, each state being entitled to at least one deputy, or two in See also:case its population exceeds 15,000, the federal district and territories being entitled to representatives on the same terms. A deputy must also be a native-born citizen, not less than twenty-one years of age, and is elected for a period of four years. The executive power is vested by the constitution in a president, two See also:vice-presidents and a cabinet of ministers. The president and vice-presidents. who must be Venezuelans by See also:birth and more tnan thirty years old, are elected by an electoral See also:body or See also:council composed of members of the national Congress, one member from each state and the Federal District. This council elects by an See also:absolute majority of votes. The presidential See also:term is four years (it was six years under the constitution of 1904), and the president cannot succeed himself. The See also:powers of the executive, direct and implied, are very broad and permit the exercise of much absolute authority. The president is assisted by a cabinet of seven ministers and the See also:governor of the federal district, their respective departments being interior, foreign relations, See also:finance and public See also:credit, war and marine, fomento (promotion), public See also:works and public instruction. The ministers are required to See also:countersign all acts See also:relating to their respective departments, and are held responsible both before Congress and the courts for their acts. The See also:department of fomento is charged with the supervision of all matters relating to agriculture, stock-raising, mines, industries, commerce, See also:statistics, See also:immigration, public lands, posts, telegraphs and telephones. The department of the interior is also charged with matters relating to the administration of See also:justice, See also:religion and public See also:worship. The judicial power is vested in a supreme federal court, called the See also:Corte Federal y de Casacibn, and such subordinate tribunals as may be created by See also:law. As the See also:laws and See also:procedure are uniform throughout the republic and all decrees and findings have legal effect everywhere, the state judicial organizations may be considered as taking the place of district federal courts, although the constitution does not declare them so. The federal court consists of 7 members, representing as many judicial districts of the republic, who are elected by Congress for periods of six years (Const. 1904), and are eligible for re-See also:election. It is the supreme tribunal of the republic, having See also:original See also:jurisdiction in cases of See also:impeachment, the constitutionality of laws, and controversies between states or officials. It is also a court of See also:appeal (Casacibn) in certain cases, as defined by law. The judicial organization' of the states includes in each a supreme court of three members, a superior court, courts of first instance, district courts and municipal courts. The judicial terms in the states are for three years. In the territories there are civil and criminal courts of first instance, and municipal courts. The laws of Venezuela are well codified both as to law and procedure, in civil, criminal and commercial cases. The state governments are autonomous and consist of legislative assemblies composed of deputies elected by' See also:ballot for a period of three years (Const. 1904), which meet in their respective state capitals on the 1st of December for sessions of thirty days, and for each a president and two vice-presidents chosen by the legislative See also:assembly for a term of three years. The states are divided into districts and these into municipios, the executive See also:head of which is a jefe politico. There is a municipal council of seven members in each district, elected by the municipios, and in each municipio a communal See also:junta appointed by the municipal council. The See also:governors of the federal territories are appointees of the president of the republic, and the jefe politico of each territorial municipio is an appointee of the governor. The Federal District is the seat of federal authority, and consists of a small territory surrounding Caracas and La Guaira, known in the territorial division of 1904 as the West district, and the island of Margarita and some neighbouring islands, known as the East district. There are two classes of citizens in Venezuela—native-born and naturalized. The first includes the See also:children of Venezuelan parents born in foreign countries; the latter comprises four classes: natives of Spanish-American republics, foreign-born persons, foreigners naturalized through special laws and foreign See also:women married to Venezuelans. The power of granting citizenship to foreigners is vested in the president of the republic, who is also empowered to refuse See also:admission to the country to undesirable foreigners, or to expel those who have violated the special law (April it, 1903) relating to their conduct in Venezuelan territory. The right of See also:suffrage is exercised by Venezuelan males over 21 years of age, and all See also:electors are eligible to public See also:office except where the constitution declares otherwise. Foreign companies are permitted to transactbusiness in Venezuela, subject to the laws relating to non-residents and also to the laws of the country governing national companies. See also:Army.—The military forces of Venezuela consist nominally of about 20 battalions of See also:infantry, of 400 men each and 8 batteries of See also:artillery, of 200 men each. There is also a See also:battalion of See also:marines employed about the ports and in the arsenals. The organization and equipment is defective, and the force deficient in numbers and discipline. The See also:police force and See also:fire companies in the larger cities are organized on a military basis, and are sometimes used for military purposes. For a people so accustomed to revolutionary outbreaks, the Venezuelans are singularly deficient in military organization. There is no lack of See also:officers of the highest grades, but the See also:rank and See also:file are not uniformed, equipped or drilled, and military See also:campaigns are usually irregular in See also:character and of comparatively short duration. It should be said that Venezuela has a See also:modern military organization so far as law can make it. It is drawn in imitation of European See also:models, and makes military service compulsory for all Venezuelans between 21 and 50 years. This national tome is divided into actives and reserves, the strength of the first being fixed by Congress, and all the See also:rest, of unknown number, belong to the latter. The provisions of the law, however have never been enforced, and the actives or regular army are recruited by See also:impressment rather than through See also:conscription. There is a military See also:academy at Caracas, and battalion See also:schools are provided for officers and privates, but they are of little value. See also:Education.—In popular education Venezuela has done almost nothing worthy of See also:record. As in See also:Chile, See also:Peru and Colombia, the ruling classes and the See also: The episcopal seminaries are usually good, especially the one at Caracas. In addition to these, there are normal, See also:polytechnic, mining and agricultural schools, the last at Caracas and provided with a good library and museum. There are several See also:mechanics' schools (See also:Arles y Oficios) in the larger cities, and a large number of• private schools. Further educational facilities are provided by anational library with about 50,000 volumes, a national museum,. with a valuable See also:historical collection, the Cajigal See also:Observatory, devoted to astronomical and meteorological work, and the Venezuelan Academy and National Academy of See also:History—the first devoted to the national See also:language and literature, and the second to its history. Religion.—The See also:Roman See also:Catholic is the religion of the state, but freedom of worship is nominally guaranteed by law. The president, however, is empowered to deny admission into the country of foreigners engaged in special religious work not See also:meeting his approval. Practically no other form of worship exists in the country than that of the Roman Catholic Church, the See also:Protestant and other denominations holding their services in inconspicuous chapels or private apartments in the larger cities, where considerable numbers of foreigners reside. The state contributes to the support of the Church, builds its churches and provides for the salaries of its See also:clergy, and at the same time it has the right to approve or reject all ecclesiastical appointments and to permit or forbid the See also:execution of all decrees of the Roman See relating to Venezuela. The Church See also:hierarchy consists of one See also:archbishop (Caracas) and four See also:suffragan bishops (Merida, Guayana, Barquisimeto and Guarico). Finance.—The See also:financial situation in Venezuela was for a long time extremely complicated and discreditable, owing to defaults in the See also:payment of public debts, complications arising from the See also:guarantee of interest on railways and other public works, responsibility for See also:damages to private See also:property during civil wars and bad administration. To meet increasing obligations, See also:taxation has been extended and heavily increased. The public revenues are derived from customs taxes and charges on imports and exports, transit taxes, cattle taxes, profits on coinage, receipts from state monopolies, receipts from various public services such as the See also:post office, See also:telegraph, Caracas waterworks, &c., and sundry taxes, fines and other sources. From 6o to 7o% of the revenue is derived from the See also:custom-See also:house, and the next largest source is the transit tax. The official See also:budget returns for 1904-6 show the revenues and expenditures to have been 1904. 1905. 1906. Bolivares. Bolivares. Bolivares. Revenue • 57,576,741 49,385,379 49,293,067 See also:Expenditure . . 52,925,521 54,718,163 51,874,694 A considerable part of the expenditure since 1903 consists of payments on account of foreign debts which Venezuela was compelled to satisfy. To meet these, taxes were increased wherever possible, thus increasing both sides of the budget beyond its normal for those years. The public See also:debt of Venezuela dates back to the War of Independence, when loans were raised in See also:Europe for account of the united colonies of Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela. The separation of the Colombian republic into its three original parts took place in 183o, and in 1834 the foreign debt contracted was divided among the three, Venezuela being charged with 281%, or £2,794,826, of which £906,430 were arrears of interest. Other items were afterwards added to liquidate other obligations than those included in the above, chiefly on account of the See also:internal debt. Several con-versions and compositions followed, interest being paid irregularly. In 188o-81 there was a consolidation and See also:conversion of the -re-public's foreign indebtedness through a new See also:loan of £2,750,000 at 3 %, and in 1896 a' new loan of 50,000,000 bolivares (£1,980,198) for railway guarantees and other domestic obligations. In August 1904 these loans and arrears of interest brought the foreign debt up to £5,618;725, which in 1905 was converted into a See also:diplomatic debt of £5,229,700 (3%). During these years Venezuela had been pursuing the dangerous policy of granting interest guarantees on the construction of railways by foreign corporations, which not only brought the government into conflict with them on account of defaulted payments, but also through disputed interpretations of contracts and alleged arbitrary acts on the part of ;government officials. In the civil wars the government was also held responsible for damages to these properties and for the mistreatment of foreigners residing in the country. Some of these claims brought Venezuela into conflict with the governments of Great See also:Britain, See also:Germany and See also:Italy in 1903, and Venezuelan ports were blockaded and there was an enforced settlement of the claims (about £104,417), which were to be paid from 30% of the revenues of the La Guaira and Puerto Cabello custom-houses. This settlement was followed by an See also:adjustment of all other claims, payment to be effected through the same channels. In 1908 (See also:July 31) the total debt of Venezuela (according to official returns) consisted of the following items Bolivares. Consolidated internal debt . 63,171,818 Diplomatic debt (Spanish, French and Dutch) . 7,014,569 (French, 1903-4) 5,733,490 „ of 1905 . 132,049,925 Unconsolidated debt in circulation 4,561,742 Total 212,531,544 or, 'at 25i bolivares per £, £8,417,091 The currency of Venezuela is on a gold basis, the coinage of silver and See also:nickel is restricted, and the state issues no See also:paper notes. Foreign coins were formerly legal See also:tender in the republic, but this has been changed by the exclusion of foreign silver coins and the See also:acceptance of foreign gold coins as a commodity at a fixed value. Under the currency law of the 31st of March 1879, the thousandth part of a kilogramme of gold was made the monetary unit and was called a botivar, in See also:honour of the Venezuelan liberator. The denominations provided for by this law are Gold: too, 5o, 20, 10 and 5 bolivares. Silver: 5, 2, 1 bolivares; 50, 20 (entimos. Nickel: 121 and 5 centimes. These denominations are still in use except the silver 2o-centimes piece, which was replaced by one of 25 centimes in 1891, The silver 5-bolivar piece is usually known as a " See also:dollar,” and is See also:equivalent to 481 pence, or 961 cents U.S. gold. The old peso " is no longer used except in accounts, and is reckoned at 4 bolivares, being sometimes described as a " soft " dollar. Silver and nickel are legal tender for 5o and 20 bolivares respectively. Paper currency is issued by the See also:banks of Venezuela, Caracas and Maracaibo under the provisions of a general banking law, and their notes, although not legal tender, are everywhere accepted at their See also:face value. The metric weights and See also:measures have been officially adopted by Venezuela, but the old Spanish units are still popularly used throughout the country. ((A. J. L.) History.—The coast of Venezuela was the first part of the American mainland sighted by See also:Columbus, who, during his third voyage in 1498, entered the Gulf' of Paria and sailed along the coast of the delta of the Orinoco. In the following year a much greater extent of coast was traced out by Alonzo de Ojeda, who was accompanied by the more celebrated Amerigo See also:Vespucci. In 1550 the territory was erected into the See also:captain-generalcy of Caracas, and it remained under Spanish See also:rule till the early part of the 19th See also:century. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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