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PARAGUAY
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PARAGUAY , an inland See also:republic of See also:South See also:America, between 2o° 16' 14" and 26° 31' S. and 54° 37' and 62° W. It is bounded on the N.W. by See also:Bolivia, N. and E. by See also:Brazil, S.E., S. and W. by See also:Argentina. Pop. (19o5 estimate), 631,347, including 50,000 Iguassft See also:Indians; See also:area, about 97,700 sq. m. By the treaty of 1872 the Brazilian frontier was See also:drawn up the See also:Parana from the mouth of the Jguassu or Y-Guazfi (25° 30' S.) to the See also:Salto Grande or See also:Great See also:Cataract of La Guayra (24° 7'), thence See also:west along the See also:watershed of the Sierra de Maracayft, See also:north along the Sierra de Ambaya to the See also:sources of the Apa, and down that stream to its junction with the Paraguay. The Buenos Aires treaty of the 3rd of See also:February 1876 fixed the frontier between Argentina and Paraguay, and assigned to Paraguay the portion of the Gran See also:Chaco between Rio Verde and See also:Bahia Negra; the See also:appropriation of the portion between Rio Verde and the Pilcomayo was submitted to the See also:arbitration of the See also:president of the See also:United States, who in 1878 assigned it to Paraguay. The frontier See also:line towards Bolivia has See also:long been in dispute. See also:Physical Features.—The See also:river Paraguay, See also:running from north to south, divides the republic into two sections, the eastern See also:section, or Paraguay See also:Oriental, being the most important. The western section forms See also:part of the great See also:plain called the Gran Chaco (see ARGENTINA), and is to a large extent unexplored. Paraguay proper, or the See also:country between the Paraguay and the Parana, is traversed from north to south by a broad jrregular See also:belt of See also:highlands, which are known as the See also:Cordillera Ambaya, Cordillera Urucury, &c., but partake rather of the See also:character of plateaus, and See also:form a continuation and outwork of the great interior See also:plateau of Brazil. The See also:elevation nowhere much exceeds 2200 ft. On the western See also:side these highlands terminate with a more or less sharply defined edge, the country sloping gradually up to their bases in See also:gentle undulations with open, See also:ill-defined valleys; on the eastern side they send out broad spurs enclosing deep-cut valleys, and the whole country retains more of an upland character. The tributaries that flow westward to the Paraguay are consequently to some extent navigable, while those that run eastward to the Parana are interrupted by rapids and falls, often of a formidable description. The Pilcomayo, the largest western tributary of the Paraguay, and an important frontier river, is only navigable in its upper and See also:lower reaches. From the See also:Asuncion plateau southwards, near the confluence of the Paraguay and Parana, there is a vast stretch of marshy country, draining partly into the Ypoa See also:lagoon, amd smaller tracts of the same character are found in other parts of the lowlands, especially in the valley of the Paraguay. Many parts of the country sloping to the Parana are nearly covered with dense See also:forest, and have been See also:left in See also:possession of the sparsely scattered native tribes. But the country sloping to the Paraguay, and comprising the greater part of the settled districts, is, in keeping with its proximity to the vast plains of Argentina, grassy and open, though the hills are usually covered with forest and clumps of trees are frequent in the lowlands. Except in the marshy regions and along the See also:rivers, the See also:soil is dry, porous and sandy.
See also:Geology.—Little is known of the geology of Paraguay. A large part of the area is covered by See also:Quaternary deposits, which completely conceal the solid See also:foundation on which they See also:rest. The hills and plateaus appear to be composed chiefly of the same See also:sand-See also: See also:Lopez at Ibicuy (7o m. south-See also:east of Asuncion), and native See also:copper, See also:oxide of See also:manganese, See also:marbles, See also:lime and See also:salt have been found, the real See also:wealth of the country consists rather in the variety and value of its See also:vegetable products.
See also:Climate and See also:Fauna.—The See also:year in Paraguay is divided into two seasons—" summer," lasting from See also:October to See also: See also:Civilization has not made much progress, and the habits of the See also:people are more See also:primitive than those in the more advanced neighbouring republics. As a See also:general See also:rule the Paraguayans are indolent, especially the men. See also:Climatic conditions obviate the See also:necessity of any superfluity of clothing. A See also:cotton chemise, and a See also: In 1908 the See also:total foreign population numbered about 18,000, See also:half of whom were natives of Argentina. The See also:principal towns are Asuncion, the See also:capital (pop. 1905, 60,259), See also:Villa Rica (25,000), See also:Concepcion (15,000) and Villa del Pilar (10,000); these are described in See also:separate articles. Encarnacion on the Parana has a large transit See also:trade. Government.—The constitution of the republic was voted by a constituent See also:assembly on the 25th of See also:November 1870. Legislative See also:power is vested in a See also:Congress consisting of a See also:Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, elected by universal manhood See also:suffrage in the proportion of one senator for every 12,000 inhabitants and one See also:deputy for every 6000. Every member of Congress receives a See also:salary of about £200. The head of the executive is the president, chosen by an electoral See also:college for four years, and only re-eligible after eight consecutive years. He is aided by a See also:cabinet of five ministers, responsible to Congress. Should he See also:die during his See also:term, or otherwise become unable to fulfil his duties, the president is succeeded by the See also:vice-president (similarly elected), who is ex officio chairman of the Senate. The highest judicial authority is the Supreme See also:Court, which is empowered to decide upon the constitutional validity of acts passed by Congress; its three members are appointed for four years by Congress, subject to the approval of the president. 'There are five courts of See also:appeal, and inferior tribunals in all the large towns. The See also:civil and criminal codes at Argentina have been adopted, almost without See also:change. For purposes of See also:local See also:administration the republic is divided into 23 counties (partidos), which are subdivided into communes. See also:Religion and Instruction.—See also:Roman Catholicism is the established religion, but the constitution guarantees full See also:liberty to all other See also:creeds. Asuncion, the only bishopric in the See also:state, is in the archiepiscopal province of Buenos Aires. See also:Education is backward and was long neglected. By See also:law it is See also:free and compulsory, but in some districts the attendance of many See also:children is impossible. In 1907 there were 554 See also:primary See also:schools with 41,000 pupils. See also:Defence.—In 1908 the See also:standing See also:army, including See also:cavalry, See also:infantry and See also:artillery, numbered about 115o men; and there were five government steamers used for transport and See also:revenue purposes. See also:Finance.—The See also:financial situation of Paraguay has been a source of anxiety for many years. In 1885, after See also:interest had been unpaid for 11 years on bonds amounting to £1,505,400, an agreement was made for the issue of new See also:scrip to the value of £850,000 in quittance of all claims for capital and arrears of interest, certain public lands being also ceded to the bondholders as See also:compensation. In 1895 an arrangement was made for a reduction of the See also:rate of interest, for the funding of the arrears, and for the creation of a sinking fund. The government were unable to meet their obligations under the new See also:contract, and in 1898 the outstanding amount had risen to £994,600. See also:Provision has now been made for the service of this foreign See also:debt, and the authorities have been able regularly to meet the service of the coupons. The total outstanding on the 31st of December 1908 was £831,850. Besides the See also:London debt, there are many other claims on Paraguay, including (1908) about £1,950,000 due to Brazil, about £2,500,000 due to Argentina, and an See also:internal debt of £850,000. The See also:guarantee debt due to the Paraguay Central railway exceeds £1,300,000; and the total indebtedness of the republic on the 31st of December 1908 may be estimated at £7,650,000. The revenue is derived mainly from import duties, and the most important branches of See also:expenditure are the salaries of public officials, the army, public instruction and debt. The estimated revenue and expenditure for the three years 1906-1908 are shown in the following table:— 1906 1907 19o8 Revenue £452,812 £635,000 £599,828 Expenditure 454,564 677,982 506,502 The See also:budget for 1906 remained in force in 1907 and 1908. See also:Industry.—The principal See also:industries are the cultivation and preparation of yerba See also:mate (Paraguayan See also:tea), See also:cattle-farming, See also:fruit-growing, See also:tobacco-planting and See also:timber-cutting. Yerba mate, classified as Ilex paraguayensis, is a See also:shrub. The leaves are stripped, withered, rolled and sorted, then packed in sacks and' exported, chiefly to Argentina. Paraguayan tea is used in See also:place of the See also:ordinary tea or See also:coffee in many parts of South America. Medical experts state that the beverage infused from the leaves has a stimulating effect, and is also slightly diuretic. The total amount exported from Paraguay in 1908 was 4133 tons. The majority of the yerbales (tea plantations) were formerly the See also:property of the government, but have been acquired by private enterprise. An important feature about yerba mate is the small expense necessary for its See also:production, and the cheap rate, notwithstanding the high See also:tariff on its importation, at which it can be placed on the See also:Argentine See also:market as compared with ordinary tea or Brazilian coffee. The cattle industry comes next in importance. The number of animals was estimated at 5,500,000 on the 31st of December 1908; an increase of about 45% since the See also:census of 1899. The animals are small, but See also:Durham and See also:Hereford bulls have been introduced from Argentina to improve the breed. The increase in the herds has caused the owners of saladero establishments in Argentina and See also:Uruguay to try the working of factories in Paraguay for the preparation of tasajo (jerked See also:beef) and the manufacture of See also:extract of See also:meat. Both See also:grasses and climate are against See also:sheep-farming on a large scale. Oranges are exported to Buenos Aires, See also:Rosario and See also:Montevideo, and are largely used for fattening hogs. The See also:orange groves are often uncultivated, but yield abundantly; 10,700,000 dozens of oranges were exported in 1908. Pineapples are also exported, and See also:sugar-See also:cane, cotton, coffee and See also:ramie are cultivated. Tobacco, although of inferior quality, is grown to a considerable extent; the quantity exported See also:rose from about 35 tons in 1900 to 5014 tons in 1908. Tobacco is chiefly exported to See also:Germany. The See also:staple See also:diet of the Paraguayans is still, as when the Spaniards first came, See also:maize and mandioca. (the See also:chief ingredient in the excellent chipa or Paraguayan See also:bread), varied, it may be, with the seeds of the See also:Victoria regia, whose magnificent blossoms are the great feature of several of the lakes and rivers. The forests abound in such timber as quebracho, See also:cedar, curupey, lapacho and urundey. Some of these, such as the lapacho and quebracho, are of rare excellence and durability, as is shown by the wonderful state of preservation in which the woodwork of See also:early Jesuit churches still remains. Fifteen See also:plants are known to furnish dyes, and eight are sources of fibre—the caraguatay especially being employed in the manufacture of the exquisite nanduty or spider See also:web See also:lace of the natives. See also:Rum, sugar, bricks, See also:leather, See also:furniture and extract of meat are manufactured. See also:Commerce.—The commercial situation of Paraguay has improved in consequence of the investment of foreign capital in See also:industrial enterprise. The principal articles imported are textiles, hardware, wines, See also:rice, See also:flour, canned goods and general provisions; the exports are yerba mate, hides, See also:hair, dried meat, See also:wood, oranges, tobacco. Most of the export trade is with Buenos Aires or Montevideo. The values for the five years 1904–1908 were: 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 Imports £713,146 £935703 £1,253 ,439 £1,572,255 £814,591 Exports 639,252 566,6o2 539,028 647,222 773,419 Of the imports into Paraguay, 29 % came from Germany in 1908, 21 % from the United See also:Kingdom and 19 % from Argentina. Communications.—Numerous ocean-going liners, most of which See also:fly the Brazilian or the Argentine See also:flag, ply on the Paraguay and the Parana; smaller vessels ascend the tributary streams, which are also utilized for floating See also:lumber down to the ports. Out of 1320 See also:ships which entered Asuncion in 1908 and 1184 which cleared, none was of See also:British or United States See also:nationality. The Brazilian See also:Lloyd S S. Co. provides See also:direct and See also:regular communication between Asuncion and New See also:York. The only railway in the republic is the Paraguay Central which was open in 1906 between Asuncion and Pirapo (154 M.). The completion of the line to Encarnacion was then undertaken (1906-1911), a See also:train-See also:ferry across the Parana affording connexion with Posadas. These extensions, and the alteration of See also:gauge to that of the Argentine North-Eastern, were carried out mainly at the cost of the Argentine government, which acquired a controlling interest in the Paraguay Central. They were intended to shorten the See also:journey between Buenos Aires and Asuncion from 5 days to 36 See also:hours. There are some fairly See also:good See also:wagon roads, and the government appropriates annually a considerable sum for their See also:extension. See also:Post and See also:Telegraph.—Paraguay entered the Universal PostalUnion in 1884. Telegraph lines connect Asuncion with other towns, and two cables put the republic in communication with the rest of the See also:world by way of See also:Corrientes and Posadas. See also:Money and See also:Credit.—The See also:banks open for business in 1904 were the See also:Mercantile See also:Bank, the Territorial Bank, the Bank of Los Rios & Co., and the Agricultural Bank: the last named has a capital of £207,590, advanced by the government, and lends money to the agricultural and industrial classes. The Paraguayan Bank, with a capital of £600,000, was opened in 1905, and the state bank (Banco de la Republica), with a total authorized capital of £4,000,000, was opened on the 30th of June 1908. The See also:Conversion See also:Office, which is authorized to sell or lend gold, receives a fixed revenue of £30,000 from certain import and export dues; it was reorganized in 1903 for the administration of the public debt. In the same year the gold and See also:silver coinage of Paraguay were legally standardized as identical with those of Argentina (5 gold dollars or pesos £1) ; but See also:paper money is about the only circulating See also:medium, and gold commands a high See also:premium (1600% in December 1908). The normal value of the paper or currency See also:dollar is about 4s. 8d. (For purposes of conversion the gold dollar has been taken at 5 =£1 through-out this See also:article, and the currency dollar at 5o=£1.)
Weights and See also:Measures.—The metric See also:system is officially adopted, but the weights in common use are the tonelada (2025 lb), the quintal (101'4 lb), the arroba (25'35 lb), the See also:libra (1.014 lb) and the onza (•o616 Ib). The unit for liquid measure is the cuarta (.1665 See also:gallon); for dry measure the almud (.66 See also:bushel) and fanega (12 bushels). The See also:land measures are the legua (2.689 m.). the sino (69k sq. yds.), and the legua cuadrada (122 sq. m.).
See also:History.—In 1527 See also:Sebastian See also:Cabot reached Paraguay and built a fort called Santo Espiritu. Asuncion was founded on the 15th of August 1535 by Juan de Ayolas, and his successor, Martinez de Irala, determined to make it the capital of the Spanish possessions east of the See also:Andes. From this centre Spanish adventurers pushed east to La Guayra, beyond the Parana, and west into the Gran Chaco; and before long vast See also:numbers of the less warlike natives were reduced to, See also:serfdom. The name Paraguay was applied not only to the country between the Paraguay and the Parana, but to the whole Spanish territory, which now comprises parts of Brazil, Uruguay and the Argentine provinces of Buenos Aires, Entre Rios, Corrientes, See also:Misiones, and part of See also:Santa Fe. It was not till 1620 that Paraguay proper and Rio de la See also:Plata or Buenos Aires were separated as distinct governments, and they were both dependent on the vice-See also:royalty of See also:Peru till 1776, when Buenos Aires was erected into a vice-royalty, and Paraguay placed under its See also:jurisdiction. The first See also:Christian See also:missions in Paraguay were established by the See also:Franciscans—Armenta, Lebron, Solano (who was afterwards canonized as the " Apostle of Paraguay ") and Bolanos—between 1542 and 156o; but neither they nor the first Jesuit missionaries, Salonio, See also: This See also:fell to the See also:lot of the second See also:band of Jesuits, Cataidino, Mazeta and Lorenzana, who began See also:work in 1605. Though they succeeded in establishing a See also:kind of imperium in imperio, and were allowed to See also:drill the natives to the use of arms, the Jesuits never controlled the government of Paraguay; indeed they had nearly as often to defend themselves from the hostility of the See also:governor and See also:bishop at Asuncion as from the invasions of the Paulistas or Portuguese settlers of Sao Paulo. It was only by the powerful assistance of Zabala, governor of Buenos Aires, that the See also:anti-Jesuit and quasi-See also:national party which had been formed under See also:Antequera was crushed in 1735. In. 1750, however, See also: In 1864 a dispute arose between the younger Lopez and the Brazilian government, and Lopez marched an army through Argentine territory to invade See also:southern Brazil, This See also:act induced the governments of Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina to combine for the purpose of suppressing Lopez. The invasion of Paraguay then took place, and a struggle involving an enormous See also:sacrifice of life and treasure lasted for five years, only coming to a See also:close when the Paraguayan forces were totally defeated and Lopez was killed at the See also:battle of Aquidaban on the 1st of March 187o. During this warfare every male Paraguayan capable of bearing arms was forced to fight, whole regiments being formed of boys of from 12 to 15 years of See also:age. Even women were used as beasts of See also:burden to carry See also:ammunition and stores, and when no longer capable of work were left to die by the roadside or murdered to avoid any ill consequences occurring from their See also:capture. When the See also:war See also:broke out the population of Paraguay was 1,337,439; when hostilities ceased it consisted of 28,746 men, 106,254 women above 15 years of age, and 86,079 children. During the See also:retreat of the Paraguayans the See also:dictator ordered every See also:town and village passed through to be razed to the ground, and every living See also:animal for which no use could be found to be slaughtered. When the end came the country and people were in a state of See also:absolute prostration. After the death of Lopez the government was administered by a triumvirate consisting of Cirilo Rivarola, Carlos Loizaga and Jose See also:Diaz de Bedoza, until, in November 187o, the See also:present constitution was formulated. The policy of Brazil was for a time directed towards the See also:annexation of Paraguay; the debt due to Brazil on See also:account of the war was assessed at f4o,000,000, a sum which Paraguay could never See also:hope to pay; and it was not until 1876 that the Brazilian army of occupation was wholly withdrawn. But the rivalry between Brazil and Argentina, and the necessity of maintaining the See also:balance of power among the South American republics, enabled Paraguay to remain independent. No violent constitutional change took place after 187o, though there have been spasmodic outbreaks of revolution, as in 1881, in 1894, in 1898, in December 1904—when a somewhat serious civil war was ended by the See also:peace of Pilcomayo—in July 1908 and in September 1909. None of these disturbances deeply or permanently affected the welfare of the republic, nor were all of them accompanied by bloodshed. Under the See also:presidency of J. B. Egusquiza (1894-1898) the boundary dispute with Bolivia became acute; but war was averted, largely owing to the success of the revolution, which forced the president to resign. The See also:main interest of See also:recent Paraguayan history is economic rather than See also:political. In that history the See also:gradual development of commerce, the financial reforms in 1895, and the extension of the Paraguay Central railway after 1906, were events of far greater importance than any political See also:movement which took place between 187o and r91o. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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