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See also:HYPAETHROS (Gr. iiiraiOpos, beneath the See also:sky, in the open See also:air, inrb, beneath, and aWBilp, air) , the See also:Greek See also:term quoted by See also:Vitruvius (iii. 2) for the opening in the See also:middle of the roof of See also:decastyle temples, of which " there was no example in See also:Rome, but one in See also:Athens in the See also:temple of See also:Jupiter Olympius, which is octastyle." But at the See also:- TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
- TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
- TIME, STANDARD
time he wrote (c. 25 B.C.) the See also:cella of this temple was unroofed, because the columns which had been provided to carry, at all events, See also:part of the See also:ceiling and roof had been taken away by See also:Sulla in 8o B.C. The decastyle temple of See also:Apollo Didymaeus near See also:Miletus was, according to See also:Strabo (c. so n.c.), unroofed, on See also:account of the vastness of its cella, in which See also:precious groves of See also:laurel bushes were planted. Apart from these two examples, the references in various writers to an opening of some See also:kind in the See also:roofs of temples dedicated to particular deities, and the statement of Vitruvius, which was doubtless based on the writings of Greek authors, that in decastyle or large temples the centre was open to the sky and without a roof (See also:medium autem sub divo est sine tecto), render the existence of the hypaethros probable in some cases; and therefore C. R. See also:Cockerell's See also:discovery in the temple at See also:Aegina of two fragments of a See also:coping-See also:- STONE
- STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
- STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
- STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
- STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
- STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
- STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
- STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
- STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)
stone, in which there were sinkings on one See also:side to receive the tiles and covering tiles, has been of See also:great importance in the discussion of this subject. In the conjectural restoration of the opaion or opening in the roof shown in Cockerell's See also:drawing, it has been made needlessly large, having an See also:area of about one See also:quarter of the superficial area of the cella between the columns, and since in the See also:Pantheon at Rome the relative proportions of the central opening in the See also:dome and the area of the Rotunda are 1: 22, and the See also:light there is ample, in the clearer See also:atmosphere of See also:Greece it might have been less. The larger the opening the more conspicuous would be the notch in the roof which is so greatly objected to; in this respect T. J. See also:Hittorff would seem to be nearer the truth when, in his conjectural restoration of Temple R. at See also:Selinus, he shows an opaion about See also:half the relative See also:size shown in Cockerell's of that at Aegina, the coping on the side See also:elevation being much less noticeable. The problem was apparently solved in another way at Bassae, where, in the excavations of the temple of Apollo by Cockerell and See also:Baron See also:Haller von Hallerstein, three See also:marble tiles were found with pierced openings in them about 18 in. by to in.; five of these pierced tiles on either side would have amply lighted the interior of the cella, and the amount of See also:rain passing through (a serious See also:element to be considered in a See also:country where torrential rains occasionally fall) would not be very great or more than could be retained to dry up in the cella sunk See also:pavement. In favour of both these methods of See also:lighting the interior of the cella, the See also:sarcophagus See also:tomb at See also:Cyrene, about 20 ft. See also:long, carved in See also:imitation of a temple, has been adduced, because, on the See also:top of the roof and in its centre, there is a raised coping, and a similar feature is found on a tomb found near See also:Delos; an examisle from
See also:HYPATIA
See also:Crete now in the See also:British Museum shows a pierced See also:tile on each side of the roof, and a large number of pierced tiles have been found in See also:Pompeii, some of them surrounded with a rim identical with that of the marble tiles at Bassae. On the other See also:hand, there are many authorities, among them Dr W. Dorpfeld, who have adhered to their See also:original See also:opinion that it was only through the open See also:doorway that light was ever admitted into the cella, and with the clear atmosphere of Greece and the reflections from the marble pavement such lighting would be quite sufficient. There remains still another source of light to be considered, that passing through the Parian marble tiles of the roof; the See also:superior translucency of Parian to any other marble may have suggested its employment for the roofs of temples, and if, in the framed ceilings carried over the cella, openings were See also:left, some light from the Parian tile roof might have been obtained. It is possibly to this that See also:Plutarch refers when describing the ceiling and roof of the temple of See also:Demeter at See also:Eleusis, where the columns in the interior of the temple carried a ceiling, probably constructed of timbers See also:crossing one another at right angles, and one or more of the spaces was left open, which Xenocles surmounted by a
HYPAETHROS
roof formed of tiles.
See also:- JAMES
- JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
- JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
- JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
- JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
- JAMES, EPISTLE OF
- JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
- JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
- JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
- JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
- JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
- JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)
James See also:Fergusson put forward many years ago a conjectural restoration in which he adopted a See also:clerestory above the super-imposed columns inside the cella; in See also:- ORDER
- ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
- ORDER, HOLY
order to provide the light for these windows he indicated two trenches in the roof, one on each side, and pointed out that the great See also:- HALL
- HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
- HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
- HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
- HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
- HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
- HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
- HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
- HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
- HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
- HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
- HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
- HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
- HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
- HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
- HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
- HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
- HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)
Hall of Columns at See also:Karnak was lighted in this way with clerestory windows; but in the first See also:place the light in the latter was obtained over the See also:flat roofs covering See also:lower portions of the hall, and in the second place, as it rarely rains in See also:Thebes, there could be no difficulty about the drainage, while in Greece, with the torrential rains and See also:snow, these trenches would be deluged with See also:water, and with all the appliances of the See also:present See also:day it would be impossible to keep these clerestory windows water-tight. There is, however, still another objection to Fergusson's theory; the water See also:collecting in these trenches on the roof would have to be discharged, for which Fergusson's suggestions are quite inadequate, and the gargoyles shown in the cella See also:wall would make the See also:peristyle insupportable just at the time when it was required for shelter. No drainage otherwise of any kind has ever been found in any Greek temple, which is fatal to Fergusson's view. Nor is it in accordance with the See also:definition " open to the sky." See also:English cathedrals and churches are all lighted by clerestory windows, but no one has described them as open to the sky, and although Vitruvius's statements are sometimes confusing, his description is far too clear to leave any misunderstanding as to the lighting of temples (where it was necessary on account of great length) through an opening in the roof.
There is one other theory which has been put forward, but which can only apply to non-peristylar temples,—that light and air was admitted through the metopes, the apertures between the beams crossing the cella,—and it has been assumed that because See also:Orestes was advised in one of the Greek plays to climb up and look through the metopes of the temple, these were left open; but if Orestes could look in, so could the birds, and the statue of the See also:god would be defiled. The metopes were probably filled in with shutters of some kind which Orestes knew how to open.
End of Article: HYPAETHROS (Gr. iiiraiOpos, beneath the sky, in the open air, inrb, beneath, and aWBilp, air)
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