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movement, force. In this they differed from the Eleatics and the Pythagoreans who thought in the abstract, and explained knowledge and existence in metaphysical terminology. In tracing the development of their ideas, two periods may be distinguished. The earliest thinkers down to Heraclitus endeavoured to find a material substance of which all things consist; Heraclitus, by his principle of universal See also:

FLUX (Lat. fluxus, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the English term in medicine, &c.)

flux, took a new See also:

LINE

line and explained everything in terms of force, movement, dynamic See also:

ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy. The former asked the question, " What is the substratum of the things we see?"; the latter, " How did the sensible See also:

WORLD

world become what it is; of what nature was the See also:

MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive force?" The first name in the See also:

list of the Ionian philosophers—and, indeed, in the history of See also:

EUROPEAN

European thought—is that of Thales (q.v.). He first, so far as we know, sought to go behind the See also:

INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite multiplicity of phenomena in the See also:

hope of finding an infinite unity from which all difference has been evolved. This unity he decided is See also:

WATER

Water (7ravra Hep LorLv).

It is impossible to discover precisely what he conceived to be the relation of this unity to the See also:

PLURALITY (0. Fr. pluralitd, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural number)

plurality of phenomena. Later writers from whom we derive our knowledge of Thales attributed to him ideas which seem to have been conceived by subsequent thinkers. Thus the See also:

SUGGESTION

suggestion preserved by See also:

STOBAEUS, JOANNES

Stobaeus that he conceived water to be endowed with mind is discredited by the specific statement of 'See also:

Aristotle that the earlier physicists (physiologi) did not distinguish the material from the moving cause, and that before Anaxagoras no one postulated creative intelligence. Again in the De anima (i. 5) Aristotle quotes the statement that Thales attributed to water a divine intelligence, and criticizes it as an inference from later speculations. It is probably safest to See also:

CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit Thales with the See also:

BARE

bare See also:

MECHANICAL

mechanical conception of a universal material cause, leaving See also:

pan-theistic ideas to a later See also:

period of thought. The successors of Thales were Anaximander and Anaximenes, who also sought for a primal substance of things. Anaximander postulated a corporeal substance intermediate between See also:

air and See also:

FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire on the one See also:

hand, and between See also:

earth and water on the other hand. This substance he called " the Infinite " (ra &7rEipov). Unlike Thales, he was struck by the infinite variety in things; he See also:

FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt that all See also:

DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences are finite, that they have emerged from primal unity (first calledapxn by him) into which they must ultimately return, that the Infinite One has been, is, and always will be, the same, indeterminate but immutable. See also:

CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

Change, growth and decay he explained on the principle of mechanical See also:

COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation (bibovai -yap aira TIT tV Kai &LK71V T7hS aILKLaS). Anaximenes, See also:

PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil of Anaximander, seems to have rebelled against the extreme See also:

MATERIALISM (from Lat. materia, matter)

materialism of his See also:

MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master.

Perceiving that air is necessary to See also:

LIFE

life, that the universe is surrounded by air, he was convinced that out of air all things have resulted. The See also:

PROCESS

process by which things grow is twofold, condensation (auevwois) and rarefaction apalwois), or, in other words, See also:

HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat and See also:

COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold. From the former process result See also:

CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud, water and See also:

stone; from the latter, fire and See also:

AETHER, or ETHER (Gr. deli p, probably from caeca, I burn, though Plato in his Cratylus (410 B)

aether. This theory is closely allied to that of Thales, but it is See also:

SUPERIOR

superior in that it specifies the processes of change. Further, it is difficult not to accept See also:

CICERO

Cicero's statement that Anaximenes made air a consciousdeity; we are, at all events, justified in regarding Anaximenes as a See also:

LINK

link (perhaps an unconscious link) between crude See also:

HYLOZOISM (Gr. iiX7)

Hylozoism (q.v.) and definitely metaphysical theories of existence. We have seen that Thales recognized change, but attempted no explanation; that Anaximander spoke of change in two directions; that Anaximenes called these two directions by specific names. From this last, the transition to the See also:

DOCTRINE

doctrine of Heraclitus is easy. He felt that change is the essential fact of experience and pointed out that any merely See also:

PHYSICAL

physical explanation of plurality is inherently impossible. The Many is of Sense; Unity is of Thought. Being is intelligible only in terms of Becoming. That which is, is what it is in virtue of its perpetually changing relations (7ravra ;id Kai oisEP 1s See also:

vet). By this recognition of the necessary correlation of Being and Not-being, Heraclitus is in a very real sense the See also:

FATHER

father of See also:

META

meta-physical and scientific See also:

SPECULATION

speculation, and in him the Ionian school of philosophy reached, its highest point.

Yet there is See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt the view of See also:

HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Hegel and See also:

LASSALLE, FERDINAND (1825-1864)

Lassalle that Heraclitus recognized the fundamental distinction of subject and See also:

OBJECT

object and the relations of mind and matter. Like the early Ionians he postulated a See also:

PRIMARY

primary sub-stance, fire, out of which all things have emerged and into which all must return. This elemental fire is in itself a divine rational process, the See also:

HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony of which constitutes the See also:

law of the universe. Human knowledge consists in the comprehension of this all-pervading harmony as embodied in the manifold of perception; the senses are " See also:

BAD, BCD

bad witnesses " in that they See also:

REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report multiplicity as fixed and existent in itself rather than in its relation to the One. This theory gives. birth to a sort of ethical by-product whose dominant See also:

note is Harmony, the subordination of the individual to the universal See also:

SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season; moral failure is proportionate to the degree in which the individual declines to recognize his See also:

PERSONAL

personal transience in relation to the eternal Unity. From the same principle there follows the doctrine of See also:

IMMORTALITY (Lat. in-, not, mortalis, mortal, from mors, death)

Immortality. The individual, like the phenomena of sense, comes out of the infinite and again is merged ; hence on the one hand he is never a See also:

SEPARATE

separate entity at all, while on the other hand he exists in the infinite and must continue to exist. Moreover, the soul approaches most nearly to perfection when it is least differentiated from elemental fire; it follows that " while we live our souls are dead within us, but when we See also:

die our souls are restored to life." This doctrine is at once the assertion and the denial of the self, and furnishes a striking parallel between European thought in its earliest stages and the fundamental principles of See also:

BUDDHISM

Buddhism. Knowledge of the self is one with knowledge of the Universal See also:

LOGOS (X4os)

Logos (Reason) ; such knowledge is the basis not only of conduct but of existence itself in its only real sense. Thus far the Ionian philosophers had held the See also:

field of thought. Each succeeding thinker had more or less assumed the methods of Thales, and had approached the problem of existence from the empirical See also:

side. About the See also:

time of Heraclitus, however, there sprang up a totally new philosophical spirit.

Parmenides and See also:

ZENO

Zeno (see Eleatic School) enunciated the principle that " Nothing is See also:

BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born of nothing." Hence the problem becomes a dialectical a priori speculation wherein the See also:

LAWS

laws of thought transcend the sense-given data of experience. It was therefore See also:

LEFT

left for the later Ionians to See also:

FRAME

frame an eclectic See also:

SYSTEM

system, a See also:

SYNTHESIS (Gr. a6vOeacs, from avvrcBivac, to put together)

synthesis of Being and Not-being, a correlation of universal mobility and See also:

ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute permanence. This examination of diametrically opposed tendencies resulted in several different theories. It will be sufficient here to See also:

DEAL

deal with Anaxagoras, See also:

DIOGENES

Diogenes of See also:

APOLLONIA

Apollonia, See also:

ARCHELAUS

Archelaus and See also:

HIPPO

Hippo, leaving See also:

EMPEDOCLES (c. 490–430 B.C.)

Empedocles, Leucippus and See also:

DEMOCRITUS

Democritus to See also:

SPECIAL

special articles (q.v.). The latter three do not belong strictly to the Ionian School. Anaxagoras (q.v.) elaborated a quasi-dualistic theory according to which all things have existed from the beginning. Originally they existed in infinitesimal fragments, infinite in number and devoid of arrangement. Amongst these fragments were the seeds of all things which have since emerged by the process of See also:

AGGREGATION (from the Lat. ad, to, gregare, to collect together)

aggregation and segregation, wherein homogeneous fragments came together. These processes are the See also:

WORK

work of Nous (vows) which governs and arranges. But this Nous, or Mind, is not incorporeal; it is the thinnest of all things; its See also:

ACTION

action on the particle is conceived materially. It originated a rotatory movement, which arising in one point gradually extended till the whole was in See also:

motion, which motion continues and will continue infinitely. By this motion things are gradually constructed not entirely of homogeneous particles (the homoeomere, haoioµ€pil) but in each thing with a See also:

MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of a certain See also:

KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of particle.

It is this aggregation which we describe variously as birth, See also:

DEATH

death, maturity, decay, and of which the senses give inaccurate reports. His vague See also:

DUALISM (from rare Lat. dualis, containing two, from duo)

dualism See also:

WORKS

works a very distinct advance upon the crude hylozoism of the early Ionians (see See also:

ATOM (Gr. &rows, indivisible, from a- privative, and TE,aPfw, to cut)

ATOM), and the criticisms of See also:

PLATO

Plato and Aristotle show how highly his work was esteemed. The See also:

GREAT

great danger is that we should credit him with more than he actually thought. His Nous was not a spiritual force; it was no omnipotent deity; it is not a pantheistic world-soul. But by isolating Reason from all other growths, by representing it as the motor-energy of the Cosmos, in popularizing a See also:

TERM

term which suggested See also:

PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality and will, Anaxagoras gave an impetus to ideas which were the basis of Aristotelian philosophy in Greece and in See also:

EUROPE

Europe at large. In Diogenes of Apollonia we find a return to Anaximenes. Diogenes (q.v.) began by insisting on the See also:

NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of there being only one principle of things, herein contradicting the See also:

PLURALISM (Lat. plus, plures, many, several)

pluralism of Heraclitus. This principle is that of the universal homogeneity of nature; all things are at bottom the same, or interaction would be impossible (iravra ra Isvra afro poi abro"v krepoio TBai Sal pi abro See also:

elm. This universal substance is Air. But Diogenes went much farther than Anaximenes by attributing to air not only infinity and eternity but also intelligence. This Intelligence alone would have produced the orderly arrangement which we observe in Nature, and is the basis of human thought by the physical process of inhalation. Another pupil of Anaxagoras was Archelaus of See also:

MILETUS (mod. Palatia)

Miletus (q.v.).

His work was mainly the See also:

COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of previous views, except that he is said to have introduced an ethical side into the Ionian philosophy. " See also:

JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

Justice and injustice," he said, " are not natural but legal." He endeavoured to overcome the dualism of Anaxagoras, and in so doing approached more nearly to the older Ionians. The last of the Ionians whom we need mention is Hippo (q.v.), who, like Archelaus, is intellectually amongst the earlier members of the school. He thought that the source of all things was moisture (so bypov), and is by Aristotle coupled with Thales (See also:

Metaphysics, A 3). 10PHON, Greek tragic poet, son of See also:

SOPHOCLES (495-406 B.c.)

Sophocles. He gained the second See also:

PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize in 428 B.C., See also:

EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides being first, and See also:

Ion third. He must have been living in 405, the date of the See also:

PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of the Frogs of See also:

Aristophanes, in which he is spoken of as the only See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good Athenian tragic poet, although it is hinted that he owed much to his father's assistance. He wrote 50 plays, of which only a few fragments remain. It is said that Iophon accused his father before the See also:

court of the phratores of being incapable of managing his affairs, to which Sophocles replied by See also:

READING

reading the famous See also:

CHORUS (Gr. xopbs)Z

chorus of the See also:

OEDIPUS (OiSiirovs, O16tir63i7s, Wines, from Gr. ot&eiv swell, and gobs foot, i.e. " the swollen-footed ")

Oedipus at Colonus (688 ff.), with the result that he was triumphantly acquitted. See Aristophanes, Frogs, 73, 78, with scholia; Cicero, De seneclute, vii. 22; See also:

Plutarch, Moralia, 785 B; A. See also:

NAUCK, JOHANN AUGUST (1822-1892)

Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum fragments (1889); O.

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