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Charlemagne, where he distinguishedhimself. He passed the university examination in 1821, and was shortly after appointed to a professorship of See also:

HISTORY

history in the College See also:

ROLLIN, CHARLES (1661-1741)

Rollin. Soon after this, in 1824, he married. The See also:

period of the restoration and the See also:

JULY

July See also:

MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy was one of the most favourable to rising men of letters of a somewhat scholastic See also:

CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast that has ever been known in See also:

France, and Michelet had powerful patrons in See also:

VILLEMAIN, ABEL FRANCOIS (179o-1867)

Villemain, See also:

Victor See also:

Cousin and others. But, though he was an ardent politician (having from his childhood embraced republicanism and a See also:

PECULIAR

peculiar variety of romantic See also:

FREE

free-thought), he was first of all a See also:

man of letters and an inquirer into the history of the past. His earliest See also:

WORKS

works were school-books, and they were not written at a very early age. Between 1825 and 1827 he produced See also:

DIVERS

divers sketches, See also:

CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological tables, &c., of See also:

MODERN

modern history. His Precis of the subject, published in the last-mentioned See also:

YEAR

year, is a See also:

sound and careful See also:

BOOK

book, far better than anything that had appeared before it, and written in a sober yet interesting See also:

style. In the same year he was appointed maitre de conferences at the Ecole normale. Four years later, in 1831, the Introduction d l'histoire universelle showed a very different style, exhibiting no doubt the See also:

IDIOSYNCRASY (Gr. Ibwavyspavia, peculiar habit of body or temperament; 'lbws, one's own, and viryKpao , blending, tempering, from o-vyiepavvvoOat, to put together, compound, mix)

idiosyncrasy and See also:

LITERARY

literary See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the writer to greater See also:

ADVANTAGE

advantage, but also displaying the peculiar visionary qualities which made Michelet the most stimulating, but the most untrustworthy (not in facts, which he never consciously falsifies, but in See also:

SUGGESTION

suggestion) of all historians.

The events of 183o had unmuzzled him, and had put him in a better position for study by obtaining for him a place in the See also:

RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

Record Office, and a See also:

DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy-professorship under See also:

GUIZOT, FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME (1787-1874)

Guizot in the literary See also:

FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of the university. Very soon afterwards he began his See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief and monumental work, the Histoire de France. But he accompanied this with numerous other books, chiefly of erudition, such as the iEuvres choisies de See also:

VICO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1668-1744)

Vico, the Memoires de See also:

LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546)

Luther ecrits See also:

PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par lui-meeeme, the Origines du See also:

DROIT (Fr. for " right," from Lat. directus, straight)

droit franpis, and somewhat later the Proces See also:

des templiers. 1838 was a year of See also:

GREAT

great importance in Michelet's See also:

LIFE

life. He was in the fullness of his See also:

POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, his studies had fed his natural aversion to the principles of authority and ecclesiasticism, and at a moment when the revived activity of the See also:

JESUITS

Jesuits caused some real and more pretended alarm he was appointed to the See also:

CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair of history at the College de France. Assisted by his friend See also:

Edgar See also:

QUINET, EDGAR (1803-1875)

Quinet, he began a violent polemic against the unpopular See also:

order and the principles which it represented, a polemic which made their lectures, and especially Michelet's, one of the most popular resorts of the See also:

day. He published, in 1839, his Histoire romaine, but this was in his graver and earlier manner. The results of his lectures appeared in the volumes Le Prelre, la femme, et la famille and le peuple. These books do not display the apocalyptic style which, partly borrowed from See also:

LAMENNAIS, HUGUES

Lamennais, characterizes Michelet's later works, but they contain in See also:

MINIATURE

miniature almost the whole of his curious ethicopolitico-theological creed—a mixture of sentimentalism, See also:

COMMUNISM

communism, and See also:

ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-See also:

SACERDOTALISM (from Lat. sacerdos, priest, literally one who presents sacred offerings, sacer, sacred, and dare, to give)

sacerdotalism, supported by the most See also:

ECCENTRIC (from Gr. F,c, out of, and Kivrpov, centre)

eccentric arguments, but urged with a great See also:

DEAL

deal of eloquence. The principles of the outbreak of 1848 were in the See also:

air, and Michelet was not the least important of those who condensed and propagated them: indeed his See also:

ORIGINAL

original lectures were of so incendiary a See also:

KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind that the course had to be interdicted. But when the actual revolution See also:

broke out Michelet, unlike many other men of letters, did not See also:

ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to enter on active See also:

POLITICAL

political life, and merely devoted himself more strenuously to his literary work. Besides continuing the great history, he undertook and carried out, during the years between the downfall of See also:

Louis Philippe and the final See also:

ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of See also:

NAPOLEON

Napoleon III., an enthusiastic Histoire de la revolution francaise.

Despite or because of its See also:

ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm, this was by no means Michelet's best book. The events were too near and too well known, and hardly admitted the picturesque sallies into the See also:

BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue distance which make the See also:

CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm and the danger of his larger work. In actual picturesqueness as well as in See also:

general veracity of picture, the book cannot approach See also:

Carlyle's; while as a See also:

mere See also:

CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle of the events it is inferior to See also:

HALF

half a dozen prosaic histories older and younger than itself. The coup d'etat lost Michelet his place in the Record Office, as, though not in any way identified with the See also:

REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic administratively, he refused to take the oaths to the See also:

EMPIRE

empire. But the new regime only kindled afresh his republican zeal, and his second See also:

MARRIAGE

marriage (with Mlle Adele Malairet, a See also:

LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady of some literary capacity, and of republican belongings) seems to have further stimulated his powers. While the history steadily held its way, a See also:

CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd of extraordinary little books accompanied and diversified it. Sometimes they were See also:

EXPANDED

expanded versions of its episodes, sometimes what may be called commentaries or See also:

COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

companion volumes. In some of the best of them natural See also:

SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, a new subject with Michelet, to which his wife is believed to have introduced him, supplies the See also:

TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text. The first of these (by no means the best) was See also:

Les Femmes de la revolution (1854), in which Michelet's natural and inimitable faculty of dithyrambic too often gives way to tedious and not very conclusive See also:

ARGUMENT

argument and See also:

PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching. In the next, L'Oiseau (1856), a new and most successful vein was struck. The subject of natural history was treated, not from the point of view of mere science, nor from that of sentiment, nor of See also:

ANECDOTE (from av-, privative, and isSLSwµu, to give out or publish)

anecdote nor of See also:

GOSSIP (from the O.E. godsibb, i.e. God, and sib, akin, standing in relation to)

gossip, but from that of the author's fervent democratic See also:

PANTHEISM (Gr. 7rav, all, Oeos, god)

pantheism, and the result, though, as was to be expected, unequal, was often excellent. L'Insecte, in the same See also:

key, but duller, followed.

It was succeeded by L'Amour (1859), one of the author's most popular books, and not unworthy of its popularity, but perhaps hardly his best. These remarkable works, half See also:

PAMPHLETS

pamphlets half moral See also:

TREATISES

treatises, succeeded each other as a See also:

RULE

rule at the twelve months' See also:

INTERVAL

interval, and the See also:

SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession was almost unbroken for five or six years. L'Amour was followed by La Femme (186o), a book on which a wh9le critique of French literature and French See also:

CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character might be founded. Then came La Mer (1861), a return to the natural history class, which, considering the powers of the writer and the attraction of the subject, is perhaps a little disappointing. The next year (1862) the most striking of all Michelet's See also:

minor works, La Sorciere, made its See also:

APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance. See also:

DEVELOPED

Developed out of an See also:

EPISODE

episode of the history, it has all its author's peculiarities in the strongest degree. It is a nightmare and nothing more, but a nightmare of the most extraordinary verisimilitude and poetical power. This remarkable See also:

SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, every See also:

VOLUME

volume of which was a work at once of See also:

IMAGINATION

imagination and of See also:

RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research, was not even yet finished, but the later volumes exhibit a certain falling off. The ambitious See also:

Bible de l'humanite (1864), an See also:

HISTORICAL

historical See also:

SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of religions, has but little merit. In La Montagne (1868), the last of the natural history series, the tricks of staccato style are pushed even farther than by Victor See also:

Hugo in his less inspired moments, though—as is inevitable, in the hands of such a master of See also:

LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language as Michelet—the effect is frequently grandiose if not See also:

GRAND

grand. Nos fils (1869), the last of the See also:

STRING

string of smaller books published during the author's life, is a tractate on See also:

EDUCATION

education, written with ample knowledge of the facts and with all Michelet's usual sweep and range of view, if with visibly declining powers of expression. But in a book published posthumously, Le Banquet, these powers reappear at their fullest.

The picture of the industrious and famishing populations of the See also:

RIVIERA

Riviera is (whether true to fact or not) one of the best things that Michelet has done. To See also:

COMPLETE

complete the See also:

list of his See also:

MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous works, two collections of pieces, written and partly published at different times, may be mentioned. These are Les Soldats de la revolution and Legendes democratiques du See also:

NORD

nord. The publication of this series of books, and the completion of his history, occupied Michelet during both decades of the empire. He lived partly in France, partly in See also:

Italy, and was accustomed to spend the See also:

winter on the Riviera, chiefly at See also:

HYERES

Hyeres. At last, in 1867, the great work of his life was finished. In the usual edition it fills nineteen volumes. The first of these deals with the early history up to the See also:

DEATH

death of Charlemagne, the second with the flourishing See also:

time of feudal France, the third with the 13th See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, the See also:

FOURTH

fourth, fifth, and See also:

SIXTH

sixth with the See also:

HUNDRED

Hundred Years' See also:

War, the seventh and eighth with the establishment of the rural power under See also:

Charles VII. and Louis XI. The 16th and 17th centuries have four volumesapiece, much of which is very distantly connected with French history proper, especially in the two volumes entitled See also:

RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance and Reforme. The last three volumes carry on the history of the 18th century to the outbreak of the Revolution. Michelet was perhaps the first historian to devote himself to anything like a picturesque history of the See also:

MIDDLE

middle ages, and his See also:

account is still the most vivid that exists. His inquiry into See also:

MANUSCRIPT

manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly See also:

PERSONAL

personal point of view.

Circumstances which strike his See also:

FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy, or furnish convenient texts for his polemic are handled at inordinate length, while others are rapidly dismissed or passed over altogether. Uncompromisingly hostile as Michelet was to the empire, its downfall and the accompanying disasters of the See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country once more stimulated him to activity. Not only did he write letters and pamphlets during the struggle, but when it was over he set himself to complete the vast task which his two great histories had almost covered by a Histoire du XIXe siecle. He did not, however, live to carry it farther than See also:

WATERLOO

Waterloo, and the best See also:

criticism of it is perhaps contained in the opening words of the introduction to the last volume—" 1'A,ge me presse." The new republic was not altogether a restoration for Michelet, and his professorship at the College de France, of which he contended that he had never been properly deprived, was not given back to him. He died at Hyeres on the 9th of See also:

FEBRUARY

February 1874. Almost all Michelet's works, the exceptions being his See also:

TRANSLATIONS

translations, compilations, &c., are published in See also:

UNIFORM

uniform See also:

SIZE

size and in about fifty volumes, partly by Marpon and Flammarion, partly by Calmann See also:

Levy. He has not received much See also:

RECENT

recent See also:

ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention from critics and monographers, but his Origines du droit franrais, cherchees dans les symboles et formules du droit universel was edited by Emile See also:

FAGUET, EMILE (1847- )

Faguet in 1890 and went into a second edition in 1900. See G. See also:

Monod, Jules Michelet; Etudes sur la See also:

vie etses ceiivres (Paris, 1905). (G. SA.) M?CHELET, KARL See also:

LUDWIG (1801-1893), See also:

German philosopher, was born on the 4th of See also:

DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 18or, at See also:

Berlin, where he died on the 16th of December 1893. He studied at the gymnasium and at the university of his native See also:

TOWN

town, took his degree as See also:

DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor of See also:

PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy in 1824, and became See also:

PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor in 1829, a See also:

POST

post which he retained till his death.

Educated in the See also:

DOCTRINE

doctrine of See also:

HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Hegel, he remained faithfulto his early teaching and spent his life in defending and continuing the Hegelian tradition. His first notable work was the See also:

SYSTEM

System der philosophischen Moral (Berlin, 1828), an examination of the ethical theory of responsibility. In 1836 he published, in Paris, a See also:

TREATISE

treatise on the See also:

Metaphysics of See also:

Aristotle, written in French and crowned by the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. He wrote also two other treatises on Aristotle. Nikomachische Ethik (2nd ed., 1848) and See also:

Die Ethik des Aristoteles in ihrem Verhitltniss zum System der Moral (1827). His own views are best expressed in his Vorlesungen. fiber die Personlichkeit Gottes (1841) and Die Epiphanie der ewigen Personlichkeit des Gottes. The philosophical See also:

THEOLOGY

theology developed in these works has been described as a " Neo-See also:

Christian See also:

SPIRITUALISM

Spiritualism." Among his other publications may be mentioned Geschichte der letzten Systeme der Philos. in Deutschland von See also:

KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant bis Hegel (1837-'838); Anthropologie and Psychologie (184o) ; Esquisse de logique (Paris, 1856) ; Naturrecht See also:

ODER (Lat. Viadua; Slavonic, Vjodr)

oder Rechtsphilosophie (1866) ; Hegel der unwiderlegte Weltphilosoph (187o), Wahrheit aus meinem Leben (1886). From 1832 to 1842, Michelet was engaged in See also:

PUBLISHING

publishing the complete works of Hegel, and in 1845 he founded the Berlin Philosophical Society, which has continuously represented the Hegelianism of See also:

Germany. He was the first editor of Der Gedanke (186o), the See also:

OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

ORGAN

organ of the society.

End of Article: MICHELET, JULES (1798-1874)

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